Abstract
Barbary macaques, like other non-human primates living in highly seasonal temperate environments, display high monthly variations in their diet. In addition, their diet changes according to the habitat type they colonize and to the degree of habitat degradation due to resource exploitation by local people, in particular through pastoralism. We studied the time-budget adjustments of wild Barbary macaques in three cedar–oak forests impacted by different intensities of grazing pressure from goats and sheep. We examined how diet variations influenced the time monkeys spent in their activities and their day range lengths (i.e. their energy costs). At three studied sites, diet composition and time budgets showed marked seasonal variations. Diet composition had a strong influence on monkeys’ time budget. In the forest where pastoralism was the highest, diet included a greater proportion of underground resources, shrub fruit and acorns, which led to an increase in the time spent foraging and moving, as well as an important increase in day range lengths. Energy costs were therefore higher in a degraded environment than in a suitable habitat. The monkeys living in forests subjected to pastoralism took advantage of increased day lengths to spend more time searching for food. However, in the forest with the highest pastoralism pressure, although monkeys spent more time foraging, they spent less time feeding than monkeys at the other sites. In addition, they appeared to have reached the limits of the available time they could devote to these activities, as their diurnal resting time was at its lowest level over several months. Temperature variations did not appear to modify monkeys’ time budgets. In the least favourable habitat, saving time from resting activity allowed monkeys to maintain a relatively high level of social activity, partly linked to rearing constraints.
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Acknowledgments
Financial support for this study came from the contract “Service Provincial des Eaux et Forêts d’Ifrane/University of Rennes 1”, with N. Ménard and M. Qarro as French and Moroccan scientific leaders, respectively. We thank the whole team of the Ifrane National Park project, Z. Amhaouch, I. Bouziane, B. Elasri, N. Elrouat and L. Oukannou, who provided logistical help and encouragement when necessary. Our study was conducted in close partnership with the “Haut Commissariat aux Eaux et Forêts et à la Lutte contre la Désertification” and the Regional Director of “Eaux et Forêts du Moyen Atlas” at Meknes. Special thanks go to Y. Delettre for helpful comments on the analyses. We are greatly indebted to G. Hanya, C. Grueter and Y. Tsuji for inviting N.M. to the symposium on temperate primates of the IPS2010 congress in Japan and for truly helpful comments on the manuscript. We are grateful to A. Korstjens and one anonymous reviewer for providing helpful comments that improved the manuscript. This is a scientific production of UMR CNRS 6553, Caren-OSUR, University of Rennes 1.
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Ménard, N., Motsch, P., Delahaye, A. et al. Effect of habitat quality on the ecological behaviour of a temperate-living primate: time-budget adjustments. Primates 54, 217–228 (2013). https://doi.org/10.1007/s10329-013-0350-x
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DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/s10329-013-0350-x