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Graphitic carbon nitride nanosheets as promising candidates for the detection of hazardous contaminants of environmental and biological concern in aqueous matrices

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Abstract

Monitoring of pollutant and toxic substances is essential for cleaner environment and healthy life. Sensing of various environmental contaminants and biomolecules such as heavy metals, pharmaceutics, toxic gases, volatile organic compounds, food toxins, and pathogens is of high importance to guaranty the good health and sustainable environment to community. In recent years, graphitic carbon nitride (g-CN) has drawn a significant amount of interest as a sensor due to its large surface area and unique electrochemical properties, low bandgap energy, high thermal and chemical stability, facile synthesis, nontoxicity, and electron rich property. Furthermore, the binary and ternary nanocomposites of graphitic carbon nitride further enhance their performance as a sensor making it a cost effective, fast, and reliable gadget for the purpose, and opens a wide area of research. Numerous reviews addressing a variety of applications including photocatalytic energy conversion, photoelectrochemical detection, and hydrogen evolution of graphitic carbon nitride have been documented to date. But a lesser attention has been devoted to the mechanistic approaches towards sensing of variety of pollutants concerned with environmental and biological aspects. Herein, we present the sensing features of graphitic carbon nitride towards the detection of various analytes including toxic heavy metals, pharmaceuticals, phenolic compounds, nitroaromatic compounds, volatile organic molecules, toxic gases, and foodborne pathogens. This review will undoubtedly provide future insights for researchers working in the field of sensors, allowing them to investigate the intriguing graphitic carbon nitride material as a sensing platform that is comparable to several other nanomaterials documented in the literature. Therefore, we hope that this study could reveal some intriguing sensing properties of graphitic carbon nitride, which may help researchers better understand how it interacts with contaminants of environmental and biological concern.

Graphical abstract

Graphitic carbon nitride Nanosheets as Promising Analytical Tool for Environmental and Biological Monitoring of Hazardous Substances.

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Abbreviations

g-C3N4 :

Graphitic carbon nitride

QDs:

Quantum dots

GSH:

Glutathione

ECL:

Electrochemiluminescence

PL:

Photoluminescence

GQDs:

Graphene quantum dots

IFE:

Inner filter effect

GCE:

Glassy carbon electrode

MB :

Methylene blue

CB:

Conduction band

ITO:

Indium tin oxide

LOD:

Limit of detection

NPs:

Nanoparticles

SWASV:

Square wave anodic stripping voltammetry

GO:

Graphene oxide

SERS:

Surface enhanced Raman spectroscopy

PtNPs:

Platinum nanoparticles

THIL:

Thiol based ionic liquids

NaBH4 :

Sodium borohydride

NCs:

Nanoclusters

ZIF-8:

Zeolitic imidazolate framework-8

PET:

Photoinduced electron transfer

PEC:

Photoelectrochemical

3DBC:

3D branched crystalline

FTO:

Fluorine-doped tin oxide

DRS:

Differential reflectance spectroscopy

CIP:

Ciprofloxacin

EPI:

Epinephrine

MFA:

Mefenamic acid

PAR:

Paracetamol

BCN:

Boron-doped graphitic carbon nitride

DPV:

Differential pulse voltammetry

LSASV:

Linear sweep anodic stripping voltammetry

EIS :

Electrochemical impedance spectroscopy

BP:

Black phosphorous

CTL:

Cataluminescence

CV:

Cyclic voltammetry

CA:

Chronoamperometry

DFT:

Density functional theory

DPA:

Diphenylamine

MIP:

Molecular imprinted polymer

AFM:

Atomic force microscope

XRD:

X-ray diffraction

SEM:

Scanning electron microscope

TEM:

Transmission electron microscopy

FTIR:

Fourier transform infrared spectroscopy

SMZ:

Sulfamethazine

PEI:

Poly (ethyleneimine)

SWV:

Square wave voltammetry

RH:

Relative humidity

AuE:

Gold electrode

PBA:

Phenylboronic acid

TBRC:

Tris(2,2′-biphenyl)ruthenium(II) chloride

XPS:

X-ray photoelectron spectroscopy

FRET:

Fluorescence resonance energy transfer

CL:

Chemiluminescence

HP:

Hairpin probe

EDS:

Energy dispersive spectroscopy

PDA:

Polydopamine

LGS:

Langasite

SAW:

Surface acoustic wave

Au NWs:

gold nanowires

SERS:

Surface-enhanced Raman scattering

AFP:

2-Amino fluorine polymer

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Funding

This work was funded by the Deputyship for Research & Innovation, Ministry of Education in Saudi Arabia through the project number DRI 74.

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Authors and Affiliations

  1. Chemistry Department, King Fahd University of Petroleum and Minerals, Dhahran, 31261, Saudi Arabia

    Tauqir Ahmad, Sardaraz Khan & Nisar Ullah

  2. Interdisciplinary Research Center for Advanced Materials, King Fahd University of Petroleum and Minerals (KFUPM), Dhahran, 31261, Saudi Arabia

    Tahir Rasheed

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  1. Tauqir Ahmad
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  2. Sardaraz Khan
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  4. Nisar Ullah
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Correspondence to Tahir Rasheed or Nisar Ullah.

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Ahmad, T., Khan, S., Rasheed, T. et al. Graphitic carbon nitride nanosheets as promising candidates for the detection of hazardous contaminants of environmental and biological concern in aqueous matrices. Microchim Acta 189, 426 (2022). https://doi.org/10.1007/s00604-022-05516-x

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