Abstract
Purpose
Determine digestible indispensable amino acid score (DIAAS) for animal- and plant-based burgers and test the hypothesis that DIAAS calculated for a burger and a burger bun is additive in a combined meal.
Methods
Ten ileal cannulated gilts were fed experimental diets for six 9-d periods with ileal digesta being collected on d 8 and 9 of each period. Six diets contained a burger (i.e., 80% lean beef, 93% lean beef, 80% lean pork, Impossible Burger, or Beyond Burger) or a burger bun as the sole source of crude protein and amino acids. Three additional diets were based on a combination of the bun and 80% beef, pork, or Impossible Burger. A nitrogen-free diet was also used. The DIAAS for all ingredients and mixed meals was calculated for children from 6 months to 3 years and for individuals older than 3 years, and DIAAS for combined meals was predicted from individual ingredient DIAAS.
Results
The 93% lean beef and the pork burgers had greater (P < 0.05) DIAAS than the plant-based burgers for both age groups. The 80% lean beef burger had greater (P < 0.05) DIAAS than the plant burgers for children from 6 months to 3 years, and greater (P < 0.05) DIAAS than the Beyond Burger for individuals older than 3 years. There were no differences between the measured and predicted DIAAS.
Conclusions
The protein quality of animal-based burgers is greater than that of plant-based burgers. However, for individuals older than 3 years, the Impossible Burger has comparable protein quality to the 80% lean beef burger. The DIAAS obtained from individual foods is additive in mixed meals.
Similar content being viewed by others
Abbreviations
- AA:
-
Amino acids
- AAA:
-
Aromatic amino acids
- AEE:
-
Acid hydrolyzed ether extract
- AID:
-
Apparent ileal digestibility
- Asx:
-
Sum of asparagine and aspartic acid
- CP:
-
Crude protein
- DIAA:
-
Digestible indispensable amino acid
- DIAAS:
-
Digestible indispensable amino acid score
- Glx:
-
Sum of glutamine and glutamic acid
- SAA:
-
Sulfur amino acids
- SE:
-
Standard error
- SID:
-
Standardized ileal digestibility
References
Daniel CR, Cross AJ, Koebnick C, Sinha R (2011) Trends in meat consumption in the USA. Public Health Nutr 14:575–583. https://doi.org/10.1017/S1368980010002077
Speedy AW (2003) Global production and consumption of animal source foods. J Nutr 133:4048S-4053S. https://doi.org/10.1093/jn/133.11.4048S
FAOSTAT (2018) Food supply—crops primary equivalent. http://www.fao.org/faostat/en/#data/CC. Accessed 30 Apr 2021
Björn W, Przemek O, Sedef K, Benjamin M, Michael B, Jürgen R, Ulrik S, Decker W, Elfrun VK, Nico D, Friederike GH (2021) Food for thought: the protein transformation. Boston Consulting Group. https://www.bcg.com/publications/2021/the-benefits-of-plant-based-meats. Accessed 30 Apr 2021
Ruby MB (2012) Vegetarianism. A blossoming field of study. Appetite 58:141–150. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.appet.2011.09.019
Beardsworth AD, Keil ET (1991) Vegetarianism, veganism, and meat avoidance: recent trends and findings. Br J Nutr 93:19–24. https://doi.org/10.1108/00070709110135231
Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations—FAO (2013) Dietary protein quality evaluation in human nutrition. Report of an FAO expert consultation, Rome
Fanelli NS, Bailey HM, Guardiola LV, Stein HH (2021) Values for digestible indispensable amino acid score (DIAAS) determined in pigs are greater for milk than for breakfast cereals, but DIAAS values for individual ingredients are additive in combined meals. J Nutr 151:540–547. https://doi.org/10.1093/jn/nxaa398
United States Department of Agriculture and Food Safety and Inspection Service (2016) Meat preparation. https://www.fsis.usda.gov/wps/portal/fsis/topics/food-safety-education/get-answers/food-safety-fact-sheets/meat-preparation. Accessed 22 Aug 2019
Hodgkinson SM, Stein HH, de Vries S, Hendriks WH, Moughan PJ (2020) Determination of true ileal amino acid digestibility in the growing pig for calculation of digestible indispensable amino acid score (DIAAS). J Nutr 150:2621–2623. https://doi.org/10.1093/jn/nxaa210
Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations – FAO (2014) Research approaches and methods for evaluating the protein quality of human foods. Report of an FAO expert working group, Rome
National Research Council—NRC (2012) Nutrient requirements of swine. 11th rev edition. Washington, DC
Stein HH, Shipley CF, Easter RA (1998) Technical note: a technique for inserting a T-cannula into the distal ileum of pregnant sows. J Anim Sci 76:1433–1436. https://doi.org/10.2527/1998.7651433x
AOAC International (2007) Official methods of analysis of AOAC International, 18th ed. Rev. 2. Gaithersburg (MD)
US Environmental Protection Agency (2000) Acid digestion of sediments sludges and soils US. EPA, Washington, DC
Myers WD, Ludden PA, Nayigihugu V, Hess BW (2004) Technical note: a procedure for the preparation and quantitative analysis of samples for titanium dioxide. J Anim Sci 82:179–183. https://doi.org/10.2527/2004.821179x
Stein HH, Sève B, Fuller MF, Moughan PJ, de Lange CFM (2007) Invited review: amino acid bioavailability and digestibility in pig feed ingredients: terminology and application. J Anim Sci 85:172–180. https://doi.org/10.2527/jas.2005-74
Stein HH, Pedersen C, Wirt AR, Bohlke RA (2005) Additivity of values for apparent and standardized ileal digestibility of amino acids in mixed diets fed to growing pigs. J Anim Sci 83:2387–2395. https://doi.org/10.2527/2005.83102387x
Han F, Han F, Wang Y, Fan L, Song G, Chen X, Jiang P, Miao H, Han Y (2019) Digestible indispensable amino acid scores of nine cooked cereal grains. Br J Nutr 121:30–41. https://doi.org/10.1017/S0007114518003033
Abelilla JJ, Liu Y, Stein HH (2018) Digestible indispensable amino acid score (DIAAS) and protein digestibility corrected amino acid score (PDCAAS) in oat protein concentrate measured in 20-to 30-kilogram pigs. J Sci Food Agric 98:410–414. https://doi.org/10.1002/jsfa.8457
Cervantes-Pahm SK, Liu Y, Stein HH (2014) Digestible indispensable amino acid score and digestible amino acids in eight cereal grains. Br J Nutr 111:1663–1672. https://doi.org/10.1017/S000711451300427
Rutherfurd SM, Fanning AC, Miller BJ, Moughan PJ (2015) Protein digestibility-corrected amino acid scores and digestible indispensable amino acid scores differentially describe protein quality in growing male rats. J Nutr 145:372–379. https://doi.org/10.3945/jn.114.195438
Mathai JK, Liu Y, Stein HH (2017) Values for digestible indispensable amino acid scores (DIAAS) for some dairy and plant proteins may better describe protein quality than values calculated using the concept for protein digestibility-corrected amino acid scores (PDCAAS). Br J Nutr 117:490–499. https://doi.org/10.1017/S0007114517000125
Bailey HM, Stein HH (2020) Raw and roasted pistachio nuts (Pistacia vera L.) are ‘good’sources of protein based on their digestible indispensable amino acid score as determined in pigs. J Sci Food Agric 100:3878–3885. https://doi.org/10.1002/jsfa.10429
Bailey HM, Mathai JK, Berg EP, Stein HH (2020) Pork products have digestible indispensable amino acid scores (DIAAS) that are greater than 100 when determined in pigs, but processing does not always increase DIAAS. J Nutr 150:475–482. https://doi.org/10.1093/jn/nxz284
Hodgkinson SM, Montoya CA, Scholten PT, Rutherfurd SM, Moughan PJ (2018) Cooking conditions affect the true ileal digestible amino acid content and digestible indispensable amino acid score (DIAAS) of bovine meat as determined in pigs. J Nutr 148:1564–1569. https://doi.org/10.1093/jn/nxy153
Bailey HM, Mathai JK, Berg EP, Stein HH (2020) Most meat products have digestible indispensable amino acid scores that are greater than 100, but processing may increase or reduce protein quality. Br J Nutr 24:14–22. https://doi.org/10.1017/S0007114520000641
United States Department of Agriculture Agricultural Research Service (2019) USDA food composition database. https://ndb.nal.usda.gov. Accessed 14 Dec 2020
United States Department of Agriculture Agricultural Research Service (2020) USDA food composition database. https://ndb.nal.usda.gov. Accessed 14 Dec 2020
Jaeger H, Janositz A, Knorr D (2010) The Maillard reaction and its control during food processing. The potential of emerging technologies. Pathol Biol 58:207–213. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.patbio.2009.09.016
Almeida FN, Htoo JK, Thomson J, Stein HH (2014) Effects of heat treatment on apparent and standardized ileal digestibility of amino acids in canola meal fed to growing pigs. Anim Feed Sci Technol 187:44–52. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.anifeedsci.2013.09.009
González-Vega JC, Kim BG, Htoo JK, Lemme A, Stein HH (2011) Amino acid digestibility in heated soybean meal fed to growing pigs. J Anim Sci 89:3617–3625. https://doi.org/10.2527/jas.2010-3465
Stein HH, Trottier NL, Bellaver C, Easter RA (1999) The effect of feeding level and physiological status on total flow and amino acid composition of endogenous protein at the distal ileum in swine. J Anim Sci 77:1180–1187. https://doi.org/10.2527/1999.7751180x
Almeida FN, Petersen GI, Stein HH (2011) Digestibility of amino acids in corn, corn co-products and bakery meal fed to growing pigs. J Anim Sci 89:4109–4115. https://doi.org/10.2527/jas.2011-4143
Casas GA, Almeida JAS, Stein HH (2015) Amino acid digestibility in rice co-products fed to growing pigs. Anim Feed Sci Technol 207:150–158. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.anifeedsci.2015.05.024
Xue PC, Ragland D, Adeola O (2014) Determination of additivity of apparent and standardized ileal digestibility of amino acids in diets containing multiple protein sources fed to growing pigs. J Anim Sci 92:3937–3944. https://doi.org/10.2527/jas.2014-7815
Adeola O, Xue PC, Cowieson AJ, Ajuwon KM (2016) Basal endogenous losses of amino acids in protein nutrition research for swine and poultry. Anim Feed Sci Technol 221:274–283. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.anifeedsci.2016.06.004
Kim BG, Lee SA, Park KR, Stein HH (2020) At least three days of adaptation are required before indigestible markers (chromium, titanium, and acid insoluble ash) are stabilized in the ileal digesta of 60-kg pigs, but values for amino acid digestibility are affected by the marker. J Anim Sci 98:1–8. https://doi.org/10.1093/jas/skaa027
Acknowledgements
The authors acknowledge the Beef Checkoff, Denver, CO, and the National Pork Checkoff, Clive, IA, for providing funding for this research
Funding
Funding for this research was provided in part by The Beef Checkoff, Denver, CO, and in part by the National Pork Checkoff, Clive, IA.
Author information
Authors and Affiliations
Contributions
All authors contributed to the study conception and design. MNN, RD, and TT prepared the burgers used in the experiment. NSF conducted the animal part of the research and analyzed the data. HMB assisted with statistical analyses. MNN, RD, and TT contributed to the interpretation of the data. NSF wrote the first draft of the manuscript. HHS supervised the project and had primary responsibility for the final content. All authors read and approved the final manuscript.
Corresponding author
Ethics declarations
Conflict of interest
The authors declare that they have no conflicts of interest.
Availability of data and materials
All data generated or analyzed during this research are included in this manuscript.
Code availability
Not applicable.
Ethics approval
The study was approved by the Institutional Animal Care and Use Committee at the University of Illinois under the United States Department of Agriculture Animal Welfare Act and the NIH Public Health Service Policy on the Humane Care and Use of Animals; Protocol license number: 19131.
Consent to participate/for publication
Not applicable—the manuscript does not contain clinical studies or patient data.
Supplementary Information
Below is the link to the electronic supplementary material.
Rights and permissions
About this article
Cite this article
Fanelli, N.S., Bailey, H.M., Thompson, T.W. et al. Digestible indispensable amino acid score (DIAAS) is greater in animal-based burgers than in plant-based burgers if determined in pigs. Eur J Nutr 61, 461–475 (2022). https://doi.org/10.1007/s00394-021-02658-1
Received:
Accepted:
Published:
Issue Date:
DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/s00394-021-02658-1