Skip to main content

Advertisement

Log in

Capturing the cornerstones of coral reef resilience: linking theory to practice

  • Published:
Coral Reefs Aims and scope Submit manuscript

Abstract

Coral reefs can undergo unexpected and dramatic changes in community composition, so called phase shifts. This can have profound consequences for ecosystem services upon which human welfare depends. Understanding of this behavior is in many aspects still in its infancy. Resilience has been argued to provide insurance against unforeseen ecosystem responses in the face of environmental change, and has become a prime goal for the management of coral reefs. However, diverse definitions of resilience can be found in the literature, making its meaning ambiguous. Several studies have used the term as a theoretical framework and concern regarding its practical applicability has been raised. Consequently, operationalizing theory to make resilience observable is an important task, particularly for policy makers and managers dealing with pressing environmental problems. Ultimately this requires some type of empirical assessments, something that has proven difficult due to the multidimensional nature of the concept. Biodiversity, spatial heterogeneity, and connectivity have been proposed as cornerstones of resilience as they may provide insurance against ecological uncertainty. The aim of this article is to provide an overview of the divergent uses of the concept and to propose empirical indicators of the cornerstones of coral reef resilience. These indicators include functional group approaches, the ratios of “good” and “bad” colonizers of space, measurements of spatial heterogeneity, and estimates of potential space availability against grazing capacity. The essence of these operational indicators of resilience is to use them as predictive tools to recognize vulnerability before disturbance occurs that may lead to abrupt phase shifts. Moving toward operationalizing resilience theory is imperative to the successful management of coral reefs in an increasingly disturbed and human-dominated environment.

This is a preview of subscription content, log in via an institution to check access.

Access this article

Price excludes VAT (USA)
Tax calculation will be finalised during checkout.

Instant access to the full article PDF.

Institutional subscriptions

Fig. 1
Fig. 2
Fig. 3

Similar content being viewed by others

References

  • Allen CR, Gunderson L, Johnson AR (2005) The use of discontinuities and functional groups to assess relative resilience in complex systems. Ecosystems 8:958–966

    Google Scholar 

  • Aronson R, Precht W (2006) Conservation, precaution, and Caribbean reefs. Coral Reefs 25:441–450

    Google Scholar 

  • Aronson RB, Precht WF, Toscano MA, Koltes KH (2002) The 1998 bleaching event and its aftermath on a coral reef in Belize. Mar Biol 141:435–447

    Google Scholar 

  • Aronson RB, MacIntyre IG, Wapnick CM, O’Neill MW (2004) Phase shifts, alternative states, and the unprecedented convergence of two reef systems. Ecology 85:1876–1891

    Google Scholar 

  • Bak RPM, Meesters EH (1998) Coral population structure: the hidden information of colony size-frequency distributions. Mar Ecol Prog Ser 162:301–306

    Google Scholar 

  • Bellwood DR, Hoey AS, Choat JH (2003) Limited functional redundancy in high diversity systems: resilience and ecosystem function on coral reefs. Ecol Lett 6:281–285

    Google Scholar 

  • Bellwood DR, Hughes TP, Folke C, Nyström M (2004) Confronting the coral reef crisis. Nature 429:827–833

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Bellwood DR, Hughes TP, Hoey AS (2006) Sleeping functional group drives coral-reef recovery. Curr Biol 16:2434–2439

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Bennett EM, Cumming GS, Peterson GD (2005) A systems model approach to determining resilience surrogates for case studies. Ecosystems 8:945–957

    Google Scholar 

  • Berkeley SA, Chapman C, Sogard SM (2004) Maternal age as a determinant of larval growth and survival in a marine fish, Sebastes melanops. Ecology 85:1258–1264

    Google Scholar 

  • Birrell CL, McCook LJ, Willis BL (2005) Effects of algal turfs and sediment on coral settlement. Mar Pollut Bull 51:408–414

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Bonaldo RM, Bellwood DR (2008) Size-dependent variation in the functional role of the parrotfish Scarus rivulatus on the Great Barrier Reef, Australia. Mar Ecol Prog Ser [doi:10.3354/meps07413]

  • Box SJ, Mumby PJ (2007) Effect of macroalgal competition on growth and survival of juvenile Caribbean corals. Mar Ecol Prog Ser 342:139–149

    Google Scholar 

  • Brand FS, Jax K (2007) Focusing the meaning(s) of resilience: resilience as a descriptive concept and a boundary object. Ecol Soc 12. http://www. ecologyandsociety.org/vol12/iss1/art23/

  • Brock WA, Carpenter SR (2007) Panaceas and diversification of environmental policy. Proc Natl Acad Sci USA 104:15206–15211

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Bruggemann JH, van Kessel AM, van Rooij JM, Breeman AM (1996) Bioerosion and sediment ingestion by the Caribbean parrotfish Scarus vetula and Sparisoma viride: implications of fish size, feeding mode and habitat use. Mar Ecol Prog Ser 134:59–71

    Google Scholar 

  • Bruno JF, Selig ER (2007) Regional decline of coral cover in the Indo-Pacific: timing, extent, and subregional comparisons. PLoS One 2:e711

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Carpenter RC (2003) Regime shifts in lake ecosystems: pattern and variation. In: Kinne O (ed) Excellence in ecology. Book 15. International Ecology Institute, Oldendorf/Luhe

    Google Scholar 

  • Carpenter SR, Brock WA (2006) Rising variance: a leading indicator of ecological transition. Ecol Lett 9:311–318

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Carpenter S, Walker B, Anderies JM, Abel N (2001) From metaphor to measurement: Resilience of what to what? Ecosystems 4:765–781

    Google Scholar 

  • Carpenter SR, Westley F, Turner MG (2005) Surrogates for resilience of social-ecological systems. Ecosystems 8:941–944

    Google Scholar 

  • Chadwick-Furman NE, Spiegel M (2000) Abundance and clonal replication in the tropical corallimorpharian Rhodactis rhodostoma. Invertebr Biol 119:351–360

    Google Scholar 

  • Chapin FS, Walker BH, Hobbs RJ, Hooper DU, Lawton JH, Sala OE, Tilman D (1997) Biotic control over the functioning of ecosystems. Science 277:500–504

    CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Chapin FS, Zavaleta ES, Eviner VT, Naylor RL, Vitousek PM, Reynolds HL, Hooper DU, Lavorel S, Sala OE, Hobbie SE, Mack MC, Diaz S (2000) Consequences of changing biodiversity. Nature 405:234–242

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Chapman MR, Kramer DL (2000) Movements of fishes within and among fringing coral reefs in barbados. Environ Biol Fish 57:11–24

    Google Scholar 

  • Connell JH (1978) Diversity in tropical rainforests and coral reefs. Science 199:1302–1310

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Connell JH (1997) Disturbance and recovery of coral assemblages. Coral Reefs 16:S101–S113

    Google Scholar 

  • Cottingham KL, Brown BL, Lennon JT (2001) Biodiversity may regulate the temporal variability of ecological systems. Ecol Lett 4:72–85

    Google Scholar 

  • Cumming GS, Barnes G, Perz S, Schmink M, Sieving KE, Southworth J, Binford M, Holt RD, Stickler C, Van Holt T (2005) An exploratory framework for the empirical measurement of resilience. Ecosystems 8:975–987

    Google Scholar 

  • Diaz-Pulido G, McCook LJ (2002) The fate of bleached corals: patterns and dynamics of algal recruitment. Mar Ecol Prog Ser 232:115–128

    Google Scholar 

  • Dinesen ZD (1983) Patterns in the distribution of soft corals across the central Great Barrrier Reef. Coral Reefs 1:229–236

    Google Scholar 

  • Done TJ (1992) Phase shifts in coral reef communities and their ecological significance. Hydrobiologia 247:121–132

    Google Scholar 

  • Done TJ (1999) Coral community adaptability to environmental change at the scales of regions, reefs and reef zones. Am Zool 39:66–79

    Google Scholar 

  • Done TJ, Ogden JC, Wiebe WJ, Rosen B (1996) Biodiversity and ecosystem function of coral reefs. In: Mooney HA, Cushman JH, Medina E, Sala E, Schulze E-D (eds) Functional roles of biodiversity: a global perspective. John Wiley & Sons Ltd, Chichester, pp 393–423

    Google Scholar 

  • Duffy JE (2002) Biodiversity and ecosystem function: the consumer connection. Oikos 99:201–219

    Google Scholar 

  • Edmunds PJ (2000) Patterns in the distribution of juvenile corals and coral reef community structure in St. John, US Virgin Islands. Mar Ecol Prog Ser 202:113–124

    Google Scholar 

  • Edmunds PJ (2007) Evidence for a decadal-scale decline in the growth rates of juvenile scleractinian corals. Mar Ecol Prog Ser 341:1–13

    Google Scholar 

  • Ehrlich PR, Ehrlich AH (1981) Extinction: the causes and consequences of the disappearance of species. Random House, New York

    Google Scholar 

  • Elmqvist T, Folke C, Nyström M, Peterson G, Bengtsson J, Walker B, Norberg J (2003) Response diversity, ecosystem change and resilience. Front Ecol Environ 1:488–494

    Google Scholar 

  • Evans RD, Russ GR, Kritzer JP (2008) Batch fecundity of Lutjanus carponotatus (Lutjanidae) and implications of no-take marine reserves on the Great Barrier Reef, Australia. Coral Reefs 27:179–189

    Google Scholar 

  • Fischer J, Lindenmayer D, Blomberg S, Montague-Drake R, Felton A, Stein J (2007) Functional richness and relative resilience of bird communities in regions with different land use intensities. Ecosystems 10:964–974

    Google Scholar 

  • Folke C (2006) Resilience: the emergence of a perspective for social-ecological systems analyses. Global Environ Change 16:253–267

    Google Scholar 

  • Folke C, Carpenter S, Elmqvist T, Gunderson L, Holling CS, Walker B (2002) Resilience and sustainable development: building adaptive capacity in a world of transformations. Ambio 31:437–440

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Folke C, Carpenter S, Walker B, Scheffer M, Elmqvist T, Gunderson L, Holling CS (2004) Regime shifts, resilience, and biodiversity in ecosystem management. Annual Review of Ecology Evolution and Systematics S 35:557–581

    Google Scholar 

  • Forys EA, Allen CR (2002) Functional group change within and across scales following invasions and extinctions in the everglades ecosystem. Ecosystems 5:339–347

    Google Scholar 

  • Galaz V, Crona B, Daw T, Bodin Ö, Nyström M, Olsson P (In press) Can Web crawlers revolutionize ecological monitoring. Frontiers Ecol Environ

  • Gamfeldt L, Hillebrand H, Jonsson PR (2008) Multiple functions increase the importance of biodiversity for overall ecosystem functioning. Ecology 89:1223–1231

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Gardner TA, Cote IM, Gill JA, Grant A, Watkinson AR (2003) Long-term region-wide declines in Caribbean corals. Science 301:958–960

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Gascoigne J, Lipcius RN (2004) Allee effects in marine systems. Mar Ecol Prog Ser 269:49–59

    Google Scholar 

  • Glassom D, Zakai D, Chadwick-Furman NE (2004) Coral recruitment: a spatio-temporal analysis along the coastline of Eilat, northern Red Sea. Mar Biol 144:641–651

    Google Scholar 

  • Graham NAJ, Wilson SK, Jennings S, Polunin N, Bijoux JP, Robinson J (2006) Dynamic fragility of oceanic coral reef ecosystems. Proc Natl Acad Sci USA 103:8425–8429

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Graham NAJ, Wilson SK, Jennings S, Polunin NVC, Robinson J, Bijoux JP, Daw TM (2007) Lag effects in the impacts of mass coral bleaching on coral reef fish, fisheries, and ecosystems. Conserv Biol 21:1291–1300

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Gunderson LH (2000) Ecological resilience - in theory and application. Annu Rev Ecol Syst 31:425–439

    Google Scholar 

  • Gunderson L, Holling CS (2002) Panarchy: understanding transformations in human and natural systems. Island Press, Washington DC

    Google Scholar 

  • Hoegh-Guldberg O, Mumby PJ, Hooten AJ, Steneck RS, Greenfield P, Gomez E, Harvell CD, Sale PF, Edwards AJ, Caldeira K, Knowlton N, Eakin CM, Iglesias-Prieto R, Muthiga N, Bradbury RH, Dubi A, Hatziolos ME (2007) Coral reefs under rapid climate change and ocean acidification. Science 318:1737–1742

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Holling CS (1973) Resilience and stability of ecological systems. Annu Rev Ecol Syst 4:1–23

    Google Scholar 

  • Holling CS (1992) Cross-scale morphology, geometry, and dynamics of ecosystems. Ecol Monogr 62:447–502

    Google Scholar 

  • Holling CS (1996) Surprise for science, resilience for ecosystems, and incentives for people. Ecol Appl 6:733–735

    Google Scholar 

  • Holling CS (2001) Understanding the complexity of economic, ecological, and social systems. Ecosystems 4:390–405

    Google Scholar 

  • Hooper DU, Vitousek PM (1998) Effects of plant composition and diversity on nutrient cycling. Ecol Monogr 68:121–149

    Google Scholar 

  • Hooper DU, Chapin FS, Ewel JJ, Hector A, Inchausti P, Lavorel S, Lawton JH, Lodge DM, Loreau M, Naeem S, Schmid B, Setala H, Symstad AJ, Vandermeer J, Wardle DA (2005) Effects of biodiversity on ecosystem functioning: a consensus of current knowledge. Ecol Monogr 75:3–35

    Google Scholar 

  • Hughes TP (1989) Community structure and diversity of coral reefs - the role of history. Ecology 70:275–279

    Google Scholar 

  • Hughes TP (1994) Catastrophes, phase-shifts, and large-scale degradation of a Caribbean coral reef. Science 265:1547–1551

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Hughes TP, Connell JH (1999) Multiple stressors on coral reefs: a long-term perspective. Limnol Oceanogr 44:932–940

    Google Scholar 

  • Hughes TP, Tanner JE (2000) Recruitment failure, life histories, and long-term decline of Caribbean corals. Ecology 81:2250–2263

    Google Scholar 

  • Hughes TP, Baird AH, Dinsdale EA, Moltschaniwskyj NA, Pratchett MS, Tanner JE, Willis BL (1999) Patterns of recruitment and abundance of corals along the Great Barrier Reef. Nature 397:59–63

    CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Hughes TP, Baird AH, Bellwood DR, Card M, Connolly SR, Folke C, Grosberg R, Hoegh-Guldberg O, Jackson JBC, Kleypas J, Lough JM, Marshall P, Nyström M, Palumbi SR, Pandolfi JM, Rosen B, Roughgarden J (2003) Climate change, human impacts, and the resilience of coral reefs. Science 301:929–933

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Hughes TP, Bellwood DR, Folke C, Steneck RS, Wilson JR (2005) New paradigms for supporting resilience of marine ecosystems. Trends Ecol Evol 20:380–386

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Hughes TP, Rodrigues MJ, Bellwood DR, Ceccarelli D, Hoegh-Guldberg O, McCook L, Moltschaniwskyj N, Pratchett MS, Steneck RS, Willis B (2007) Phase shifts, herbivory, and the resilience of coral reefs to climate change. Curr Biol 17:360–365

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • IPCC (2007) Climate Change 2007: The Physical Science Basis. Contribution of Working Group I to the Fourth Assessment Report of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change. Cambridge University Press, Cambridge

  • Ives AR, Carpenter SR (2007) Stability and diversity of ecosystems. Science 317:58–62

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Jackson JBC, Kirby MX, Berger WH, Bjorndal KA, Botsford LW, Bourque BJ, Bradbury RH, Cooke R, Erlandson J, Estes JA, Hughes TP, Kidwell S, Lange CB, Lenihan HS, Pandolfi JM, Peterson CH, Steneck RS, Tegner MJ, Warner RR (2001) Historical overfishing and the recent collapse of coastal ecosystems. Science 293:629–638

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Jennings S, Polunin NVC (1997) Impacts of predator depletion by fishing on the biomass and diversity of non-target reef fish communities. Coral Reefs 16:71–82

    Google Scholar 

  • Jones GP, McCormick MI, Srinivasan M, Eagle JV (2004) Coral decline threatens fish biodiversity in marine reserves. Proc Natl Acad Sci USA 101:8251–8253

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Kaufmann A, Fagerstrom JA (1993) The Phanerozoic evolution of reef diversity. In: Ricklefs RE, Schulter D (eds) Species diversity in ecological communities: a historical and geographical perspective. University of Chicago Press, Chicago, pp 315–329

    Google Scholar 

  • Kinzig AP, Ryan P, Etienne M, Allison H, Elmqvist T, Walker BH (2006) Resilience and regime shifts: assessing cascading effects. Ecol Soc 11. http://www. ecologyandsociety.org/vol11/iss1/art20/

  • Kleypas JA, Buddemeier RW, Archer D, Gattuso JP, Langdon C, Opdyke BN (1999) Geochemical consequences of increased atmospheric carbon dioxide on coral reefs. Science 284:118–120

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Knowlton N (1992) Thresholds and multiple stable states in coral reef community dynamics. Am Zool 32:674–682

    Google Scholar 

  • Knowlton N (2001) The future of coral reefs. Proc Natl Acad Sci USA 98:5419–5425

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Kuffner IB, Walters LJ, Becerro MA, Paul VJ, Ritson-Williams R, Beach KS (2006) Inhibition of coral recruitment by macroalgae and cyanobacteria. Mar Ecol Prog Ser 323:107–117

    Google Scholar 

  • Lapointe BE (1997) Nutrient thresholds for bottom-up control of macroalgal blooms on coral reefs in Jamaica and southeast Florida. Limnol Oceanogr 42:1119–1131

    CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Ledlie MH, Graham NAJ, Bythell JC, Wilson SK, Jennings S, Polunin NVC, Hardcastle J (2007) Phase shifts and the role of herbivory in the resilience of coral reefs. Coral Reefs 26:641–653

    Google Scholar 

  • Lee SC (2006) Habitat complexity and consumer-mediated positive feedbacks on a Caribbean coral reef. Oikos 112:442–447

    Google Scholar 

  • Lokrantz J, Nyström M, Thyresson M, Johansson C. (2008) The non-linear relationship between body size and function in parrotfishes. Coral Reefs. doi 10.1007/s00338-008-0394-3]

  • Loreau M, Mouquet N, Gonzalez A (2003) Biodiversity as spatial insurance in heterogeneous landscapes. Proc Natl Acad Sci USA 100:12765-12770

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Lourie SA, Vincent ACJ (2004) Using biogeography to help set priorities in marine conservation. Conserv Biol 18:1004–1020

    Google Scholar 

  • Love MS, Johnson K (1999) Aspects of the life histories of grass rockfish, Sebastes rastrelliger, and brown rockfish, S-auriculatus, from southern California. Fish Bull 97:100–109

    Google Scholar 

  • Lundberg J, Moberg F (2003) Mobile link organisms and ecosystem functioning: implications for ecosystem resilience and management. Ecosystems 6:87–98

    Google Scholar 

  • MacArthur R (1955) Fluctuations of animal populations and a measure of community stability. Ecology 36:533–536

    Google Scholar 

  • Marshall PA, Baird AH (2000) Bleaching of corals on the Great Barrier Reef: differential susceptibilities among taxa. Coral Reefs 19:155–163

    Google Scholar 

  • McClanahan T (2004) The relationship between bleaching and mortality of common corals. Mar Biol 144:1239–1245

    Google Scholar 

  • McClanahan T, Polunin N, Done T (2002) Ecological states and the resilience of coral reefs. Conserv Ecol 6:Artn 18

  • McClanahan TR, Ateweberhan M, Graham NAJ, Wilson SK, Sebastian CR, Guillaume MMM, Bruggemann JH (2007) Western Indian Ocean coral communities: bleaching responses and susceptibility to extinction. Mar Ecol Prog Ser 337:1–13

    Google Scholar 

  • McCook LJ (1999) Macroalgae, nutrients and phase shifts on coral reefs: Scientific issues and management consequences for the Great Barrier Reef. Coral Reefs 18:357–367

    Google Scholar 

  • McCook LJ, Folke C, Hughes TP, Nyström M, Obura D, Salm RV (2007) Ecological resilience, climate change and the Great Barrier Reef. In: Johnson JE, Marshall PA (eds) climate change and the Great Barrier Reef. Great Barrier Reef Marine Park Authority and Australian Greenhouse Office, Townsville, pp 75–96

    Google Scholar 

  • McGrady-Steed J, Harris PM, Morin PJ (1997) Biodiversity regulates ecosystem predictability. Nature 390:162–165

    CAS  Google Scholar 

  • McManus JW, Polsenberg JF (2004) Coral-algal phase shifts on coral reefs: ecological and environmental aspects. Prog Oceanogr 60:263–279

    Google Scholar 

  • McNab BK (1963) Bioenergetics and determination of home range size. Am Nat 97:133–140

    Google Scholar 

  • Micheli F, Halpern BS (2005) Low functional redundancy in coastal marine assemblages. Ecol Lett 8:391–400

    Google Scholar 

  • Mooney HA, Lubchenco J, Dirzo R, Sala E (1995) Biodiversity and ecosystem functioning: basic principles. In: Heywood VH, Gardner K (eds) Global biodiversity assessment. Cambridge University Press, Cambridge, pp 275–325

    Google Scholar 

  • Mora C (2008) A clear human footprint in the coral reefs of the Caribbean. Proc R Soc Lond B 275:767–773

    Google Scholar 

  • Mumby PJ, Harborne AR (1999) Development of a systematic classification scheme of marine habitats to facilitate regional management and mapping of Caribbean coral reefs. Biol Conserv 88:155–163

    Google Scholar 

  • Mumby PJ, Hastings A (2008) The impact of ecosystem connectivity on coral reef resilience. J Appl Ecol 45:854–862

    Google Scholar 

  • Mumby PJ, Hastings A, Edwards HJ (2007a) Thresholds and the resilience of Caribbean coral reefs. Nature 450:98–101

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Mumby PJ, Harborne AR, Williams J, Kappel CV, Brumbaugh DR, Micheli F, Holmes KE, Dahlgren CP, Paris CB, Blackwell PG (2007b) Trophic cascade facilitates coral recruitment in a marine reserve. Proc Natl Acad Sci USA 104:8362–8367

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Naeem S (1998) Species redundancy and ecosystem reliability. Conserv Biol 12:39–45

    Google Scholar 

  • Naeem S, Li SB (1997) Biodiversity enhances ecosystem reliability. Nature 390:507–509

    CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Naeem S, Wright JP (2003) Disentangling biodiversity effects on ecosystem functioning: deriving solutions to a seemingly insurmountable problem. Ecol Lett 6:567–579

    Google Scholar 

  • Naeem S, Thompson LJ, Lawler SP, Lawton JH, Woodfin RM (1995) Empirical evidence that declining species-diversity may alter the performance of terrestrial ecosystems. Philos Trans R Soc Lond B 347:249–262

    Google Scholar 

  • Ninio R, Meekan M, Done T, Sweatman H (2000) Temporal patterns in coral assemblages on the Great Barrier Reef from local to large spatial scales. Mar Ecol Prog Ser 194:65–74

    Google Scholar 

  • Norberg J, Wilson JR, Walker B, Ostrom E (2008) Diversity and resilience of social-ecological systems. In: Norberg J, Cumming G (eds) Complexity theory for a sustainable future. Columbia University Press, New York, pp 46–79

    Google Scholar 

  • Nyström M (2006) Redundancy and response diversity of functional groups: Implications for the resilience of coral reefs. Ambio 35:30–35

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Nyström M, Folke C (2001) Spatial resilience of coral reefs. Ecosystems 4:406–417

    Google Scholar 

  • Nyström M, Folke C, Moberg F (2000) Coral reef disturbance and resilience in a human-dominated environment. Trends Ecol Evol 15:413–417

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • O’Neill RV, DeAngelis DL, Waide JB, Allen TFH (1986) A hierarchical concept of ecosystems. Princeton University Press, Princeton

    Google Scholar 

  • Obura DO (2005) Resilience and climate change: lessons from coral reefs and bleaching in the Western Indian Ocean. Estuar Coastal Shelf Sci 63:353–372

    Google Scholar 

  • Ostrander GK, Armstrong KM, Knobbe ET, Gerace D, Scully EP (2000) Rapid transition in the structure of a coral reef community: the effects of coral bleaching and physical disturbance. Proc Natl Acad Sci USA 97:5297–5302

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Paine RT (1966) Food web complexity and species diversity. Am Nat 100:67–75

    Google Scholar 

  • Pandolfi JM, Jackson JBC, Baron N, Bradbury RH, Guzman HM, Hughes TP, Kappel CV, Micheli F, Ogden JC, Possingham HP, Sala E (2005) Ecology - are US coral reefs on the slippery slope to slime? Science 307:1725–1726

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Pearson RG (1981) Recovery and recolonization of coral reefs. Mar Ecol Prog Ser 4:105–122

    Google Scholar 

  • Petchey OL, Gaston KJ (2002) Functional diversity (FD), species richness and community composition. Ecol Lett 5:402–411

    Google Scholar 

  • Peters DPC, Pielke RA, Bestelmeyer BT, Allen CD, Munson-McGee S, Havstad KM (2004) Cross-scale interactions, nonlinearities, and forecasting catastrophic events. Proc Natl Acad Sci USA 101:15130–15135

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Peterson G, Allen CR, Holling CS (1998) Ecological resilience, biodiversity, and scale. Ecosystems 1:6–18

    Google Scholar 

  • Petraitis PS, Latham RE (1999) The importance of scale in testing the origins of alternative community states. Ecology 80:429–442

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Pimm SL (1984) The complexity and stability of ecosystems. Nature 307:321–327

    Google Scholar 

  • Price ARG, Keeling MJ, Stewart IN (2007) A robustness metric integrating spatial and temporal information: application to coral reefs exposed to local and regional disturbances. Mar Ecol Prog Ser 331:101–108

    Google Scholar 

  • Ridzwan RA (1993) Recovery process of coral communities following the Crown-Of-Thorns starfish, Acanthaster planci, infestations on the east coast islands of peninsular Malaysia. Ph.D. thesis. Department of Marine Sciences and Coastal Management, Newcastle, p 176

  • Scheffer M, Carpenter SR (2003) Catastrophic shifts in ecosystems. Linking theory to observation. Trends Ecol Evol 18:648–656

    Google Scholar 

  • Scheffer M, van Nes EH (2007) Shallow lakes theory revisited: various alternative regimes driven by climate, nutrients, depth and lake size. Hydrobiologia 584:455–466

    CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Scheffer M, Carpenter S, Foley JA, Folke C, Walker B (2001) Catastrophic shifts in ecosystems. Nature 413:591–596

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Scheffer M, van Nes EH, Holmgren M, Hughes TP (2007) Pulse-driven loss of top-down control: the critical rate hypothesis. Ecosystems 11:226–237

    Google Scholar 

  • Smith JE, Shaw M, Edwards RA, Obura D, Pantos O, Sala E, Sandin SA, Smriga S, Hatay M, Rohwer FL (2006) Indirect effects of algae on coral: algae-mediated, microbe-induced coral mortality. Ecol Lett 9:835–845

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Smith L, Gilmour J, Heyward A (2008) Resilience of coral communities on an isolated system of reefs following catastrophic mass-bleaching. Coral Reefs 27:197–205

    Google Scholar 

  • Steneck RS, Dethier MN (1994) A functional-group approach to the structure of algal- dominated communities. Oikos 69:476–498

    Google Scholar 

  • Stobart B, Teleki K, Buckley R, Downing N, Callow M (2005) Coral recovery at Aldabra Atoll, Seychelles: five years after the 1998 bleaching event. Philos Trans R Soc Lond B 363:251–255

    Google Scholar 

  • Stow C, Allen CR, Garmestani AS (2007) Evaluating discontinuities in complex systems: toward quantitative measures of resilience. Ecol Soc 12. http://www.ecologyandsociety.org/vol12/iss1/art26/

  • Syms C, Jones GP (2001) Soft corals exert no direct effects on coral reef fish assemblages. Oecologia 127:560–571

    Google Scholar 

  • Tilman D, Downing JA (1994) Biodiversity and stability in grasslands. Nature 367:363–365

    Google Scholar 

  • Tilman D, Knops J, Wedin D, Reich P, Ritchie M, Siemann E (1997) The influence of functional diversity and composition on ecosystem processes. Science 277:1300–1302

    CAS  Google Scholar 

  • van Nes EH, Scheffer M (2004) Large species shifts triggered by small forces. Am Nat 164:255–266

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • van Nes EH, Scheffer M (2005) Implications of spatial heterogeneity for catastrophic regime shifts in ecosystems. Ecology 86:1797–1807

    Google Scholar 

  • van Nes EH, Scheffer M (2007) Slow recovery from perturbations as a generic indicator of a nearby catastrophic shift. Am Nat 170:660–660

    Google Scholar 

  • Vitousek PM, Hooper DU (1993) Biological diversity and terrestrial ecosystem biogeochemistry. In: Schulze E-D, Mooney HA (eds) Biodiversity and ecosystem function. Springer-Verlag, Berlin, pp 3–12

    Google Scholar 

  • Walker BH (1992) Biodiversity and ecological redundancy. Conserv Biol 6:18–23

    Google Scholar 

  • Walker BH, Langridge JL (2002) Measuring functional diversity in plant communities with mixed life-forms: a problem of hard and soft attributes. Ecosystems 5:529–538

    Google Scholar 

  • Walker B, Kinzig A, Langridge J (1999) Plant attribute diversity, resilience, and ecosystem function: The nature and significance of dominant and minor species. Ecosystems 2:95–113

    Google Scholar 

  • Walker B, Holling CS, Carpenter SR, Kinzig A (2004) Resilience, adaptability and transformability in social-ecological systems. Ecol Soc 9. http://www.ecologyandsociety.org/vol9/iss2/art5

  • Ward-Paige CA, Risk MJ, Sherwood OA, Jaap WC (2005) Clionid sponge surveys on the Florida Reef Tract suggest land-based nutrient inputs. Mar Pollut Bull 51:570–579

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • West JM, Salm RV (2003) Resistance and resilience to coral bleaching: Implications for coral reef conservation and management. Conserv Biol 17:956–967

    Google Scholar 

  • Wilkinson CR (ed) (2004) Status of coral reefs of the world: 2004. Australian Institute of Marine Science, Townsville

    Google Scholar 

  • Williams ID, Polunin NVC, Hendrick VJ (2001) Limits to grazing by herbivorous fishes and the impact of low coral cover on macroalgal abundance on a coral reef in Belize. Mar Ecol Prog Ser 222:187–196

    Google Scholar 

  • Wilson SK, Burgess SC, Cheal AJ, Emslie M, Fisher R, Miller I, Polunin NVC, Sweatman HPA (2008) Habitat utilization by coral reef fish: implications for specialists vs. generalists in a changing environment. J Anim Ecol 77:220–228

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Wood R (1995) The changing biology of reef-building. Palaios 10:517–529

    Google Scholar 

  • Worm B, Duffy JE (2003) Biodiversity, productivity and stability in real food webs. Trends Ecol Evol 18:628–632

    Google Scholar 

  • Zeller DC (1997) Home range and activity patterns of the coral trout Plectropomus leopardus (Serranidae). Mar Ecol Prog Ser 154:65–77

    Google Scholar 

Download references

Acknowledgments

The authors acknowledge the financial support of SIDA (the Swedish International Development Cooperation Agency)/SAREC (Department for Research Cooperation), and Fisheries Society of the British Isles. The authors also thank people at the Centre for Coral Reef Biodiversity at James Cook University for inspiring discussions. The article was greatly improved by the comments of three anonymous reviewers.

Author information

Authors and Affiliations

Authors

Corresponding author

Correspondence to M. Nyström.

Additional information

Communicating by Ecology Editor Professor Peter Mumby

Order of authors 2–3 is alphabetic

Rights and permissions

Reprints and permissions

About this article

Cite this article

Nyström, M., Graham, N.A.J., Lokrantz, J. et al. Capturing the cornerstones of coral reef resilience: linking theory to practice. Coral Reefs 27, 795–809 (2008). https://doi.org/10.1007/s00338-008-0426-z

Download citation

  • Received:

  • Revised:

  • Accepted:

  • Published:

  • Issue Date:

  • DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/s00338-008-0426-z

Keywords

Navigation