Abstract
Exposure to methylmercury (MeHg) during the foetal and postnatal periods is known to have adverse effects on children’s development. However, little attention has been paid to MeHg exposure during early childhood in Japan. To examine the regional differences in MeHg exposure and seafood consumption and the association between MeHg exposure and seafood consumption and dental metal restorations, we measured the total mercury (T-Hg) concentration in hair as an MeHg exposure index, and using questionnaires, we measured the frequency and amount of seafood consumption and the presence of dental metal restorations in 118 children aged 3–6 years in five regions of Japan. The arithmetic and geometric means of the T-Hg concentrations in hair were 1.03 and 0.87 ppm, respectively, and approximately 40% of the children exceeded the United States Environmental Protection Agency recommendation of 1.0 ppm. Significant regional differences in the hair T-Hg concentrations were found among the five regions, and the regional differences were consistent with the traditional regional patterns of eating fatty fish. According to the regression analysis, the consumption of fatty fish, particularly tuna/swordfish, had a significant effect on hair T-Hg concentrations, whereas age, sex, the materials used for dental metal restorations, and other types of seafood or fish/shellfish had no significant effects.
This is a preview of subscription content, log in via an institution to check access.
Similar content being viewed by others
Data Availability
The data that support the findings of this study are available from the corresponding author on request.
References
Afonso C, Costa S, Cardoso C et al (2015) Benefits and risks associated with consumption of raw, cooked, and canned tuna (Thunnus spp.) based on the bioaccessibility of selenium and methylmercury. Environ Res 143(Pt B):130–137. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.envres.2015.04.019
Akagi H, Malm O, Kinjo Y et al (1995) Methylmercury pollution in the Amazon, Brazil. Sci Total Environ 175(2):85–95. https://doi.org/10.1016/0048-9697(95)04905-3
Axelrad DA, Bellinger DC, Ryan LM, Woodruff TJ (2007) Dose-response relationship of prenatal mercury exposure and IQ: an integrative analysis of epidemiologic data. Environ Health Perspect 115(4):609–615. https://doi.org/10.1289/ehp.9303
Babaei J, Jalali A, Galehdari H, Saki A (2016) MT1A (A > G), MT1A (C > G), MT1 M (A > C) and MT4 (G > A) single nucleotide polymorphism allele frequencies in Iranian populations. Biotechnol Biotechnol Equip 30(5):963–969. https://doi.org/10.1080/13102818.2016.1207487
Basu N, Goodrich JM, Head J (2014a) Ecogenetics of mercury: from genetic polymorphisms and epigenetics to risk assessment and decision-making. Environ Toxicol Chem 33(6):1248–1258. https://doi.org/10.1002/etc.2375
Basu N, Tutino R, Zhang Z et al (2014b) Mercury levels in pregnant women, children, and seafood from Mexico City. Environ Res 135:63–69. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.envres.2014.08.029
Batista J, Schuhmacher M, Domingo JL, Corbella J (1996) Mercury in hair for a child population from Tarragona Province, Spain. Sci Total Environ 193(2):143–148. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0048-9697(96)05340-5
Berglund M, Lind B, Björnberg KA, Palm B, Einarsson Ö, Vahter M (2005) Inter-individual variations of human mercury exposure biomarkers: a cross-sectional assessment. Environ Health 4(1):1–11. https://doi.org/10.1186/1476-069x-4-20
Bose-O’Reilly S, McCarty KM, Steckling N, Lettmeier B (2010) Mercury exposure and children’s health. Curr Probl Pediatr Adolesc Health Care 40(8):186–215. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cppeds.2010.07.002
Boucher O, Burden MJ, Muckle G et al (2011) Neurophysiologic and neurobehavioral evidence of beneficial effects of prenatal omega-3 fatty acid intake on memory function at school age. Am J Clin Nutr 93(5):1025–1037. https://doi.org/10.3945/ajcn.110.000323
Boucher O, Muckle G, Ayotte P, Dewailly E, Jacobson SW, Jacobson JL (2016) Altered fine motor function at school age in Inuit children exposed to PCBs, methylmercury, and lead. Environ Int 95:144–151. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.envint.2016.08.010
Bradley MA, Barst BD, Basu N (2017) A review of mercury bioavailability in humans and fish. Int J Environ Res Public Health. https://doi.org/10.3390/ijerph14020169
Branco V, Caito S, Farina M, Teixeira da Rocha J, Aschner M, Carvalho C (2017) Biomarkers of mercury toxicity: past, present, and future trends. J Toxicol Environ Health B Crit Rev 20(3):119–154. https://doi.org/10.1080/10937404.2017.1289834
Budtz-Jørgensen E, Grandjean P, Keiding N, White RF, Weihe P (2000) Benchmark dose calculations of methylmercury-associated neurobehavioural deficits. Toxicol Lett 112–113:193–199. https://doi.org/10.1016/s0378-4274(99)00283-0
Canuel R, de Grosbois SB, Atikessé L et al (2006) New evidence on variations of human body burden of methylmercury from fish consumption. Environ Health Perspect 114(2):302–306. https://doi.org/10.1289/ehp.7857
Carvalho CM, Matos AI, Mateus ML, Santos AP, Batoreu MC (2008) High-fish consumption and risk prevention: assessment of exposure to methylmercury in Portugal. J Toxicol Environ Health A 71(18):1279–1288. https://doi.org/10.1080/15287390801989036
Castano A, Cutanda F, Esteban M et al (2015) Fish consumption patterns and hair mercury levels in children and their mothers in 17 EU countries. Environ Res 141:58–68. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.envres.2014.10.029
Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (2015) Fourth report on human exposure to environmental chemicals, updated tables, (February, 2015). U.S. Department of Health and Human Services, Centers for Disease Control and Prevention
Chapman L, Chan HM (2000) The influence of nutrition on methyl mercury intoxication. Environ Health Perspect 108(Suppl 1):29–56
Cordier S, Garel M, Mandereau L et al (2002) Neurodevelopmental investigations among methylmercury-exposed children in French Guiana. Environ Res 89(1):1–11. https://doi.org/10.1006/enrs.2002.4349
Davidson PW, Myers GJ, Cox C et al (1998) Effects of prenatal and postnatal methylmercury exposure from fish consumption on neurodevelopment. J Am Med Assoc 280(8):701–707. https://doi.org/10.1001/jama.280.8.701
Davidson PW, Strain JJ, Myers GJ et al (2008) Neurodevelopmental effects of maternal nutritional status and exposure to methylmercury from eating fish during pregnancy. Neurotoxicology 29(5):767–775
Davidson PW, Leste A, Benstrong E et al (2010) Fish consumption, mercury exposure, and their associations with scholastic achievement in the Seychelles Child Development Study. Neurotoxicology 31(5):439–447. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.neuro.2010.05.010
Demura M (2004) Distribution and price formation of tuna. The Norin Kinyu (Monthly review of agriculture, forestry, and fishery finance) 57:40–54 (in Japanese)
Den Hond E, Govarts E, Willems H et al (2015) First steps toward harmonized human biomonitoring in Europe: demonstration project to perform human biomonitoring on a European scale. Environ Health Perspect 123(3):255–263. https://doi.org/10.1289/ehp.1408616
EFSA (European Food Safety Authority) Panel on Contaminants in the Food Chain (CONTAM) (2012) Scientific opinion on the risk for public health related to the presence of mercury and methylmercury in food. EFSA J. https://doi.org/10.2903/j.efsa.2012.2985
Fakour H, Esmaili-Sari A, Zayeri F (2010) Scalp hair and saliva as biomarkers in determination of mercury levels in Iranian women: amalgam as a determinant of exposure. J Hazard Mater 177(1–3):109–113. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jhazmat.2009.12.002
Fisheries Agency of Japan (2015) FY2014 trends in fisheries and FY2015 fishery policy (white paper on fisheries: Summary) http://www.jfa.maff.go.jp/e/annualreport/attach/pdf/index-5.pdf. Accessed 7 Sept 2016
Freire C, Ramos R, Lopez-Espinosa MJ et al (2010) Hair mercury levels, fish consumption, and cognitive development in preschool children from Granada, Spain. Environ Res 110(1):96–104. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.envres.2009.10.005
Fukuyama T, Oda S, Yamashita H, Sekiguchi H, Yakushiji M (2008) Clinical survey on type of restoration in deciduous teeth. Bull Tokyo Dent Coll 49(1):41–50. https://doi.org/10.2209/tdcpublication.49.41
Gagne D, Lauziere J, Blanchet R et al (2013) Consumption of tomato products is associated with lower blood mercury levels in Inuit preschool children. Food Chem Toxicol 51:404–410. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.fct.2012.10.031
Geier DA, Audhya T, Kern JK, Geier MR (2010) Blood mercury levels in autism spectrum disorder: is there a threshold level? Acta Neurobiol Exp (Wars) 70(2):177–186
Genuis SJ (2008) To sea or not to sea: benefits and risks of gestational fish consumption. Reprod Toxicol 26(2):81–85. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.reprotox.2008.08.002
Goodrich JM, Basu N, Franzblau A, Dolinoy DC (2013) Mercury biomarkers and DNA methylation among Michigan dental professionals. Environ Mol Mutagen 54(3):195–203. https://doi.org/10.1002/em.21763
Grandjean P, Weihe P, White RF et al (1997) Cognitive deficit in 7-year-old children with prenatal exposure to methylmercury. Neurotoxicol Teratol 19(6):417–428
Grandjean P, Budtz-Jørgensen E, White RF et al (1999) Methylmercury exposure biomarkers as indicators of neurotoxicity in children aged 7 years. Am J Epidemiol 150(3):301–305
Grandjean P, Weihe P, Debes F, Choi AL, Budtz-Jorgensen E (2014) Neurotoxicity from prenatal and postnatal exposure to methylmercury. Neurotoxicol Teratol 43:39–44. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ntt.2014.03.004
Gundacker C, Komarnicki G, Jagiello P et al (2007) Glutathione-S-transferase polymorphism, metallothionein expression, and mercury levels among students in Austria. Sci Total Environ 385(1–3):37–47. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.scitotenv.2007.07.033
Gustin K, Tofail F, Mehrin F, Levi M, Vahter M, Kippler M (2017) Methylmercury exposure and cognitive abilities and behavior at 10 years of age. Environ Int 102:97–105. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.envint.2017.02.004
Honda S, Hylander L, Sakamoto M (2006) Recent advances in evaluation of health effects on mercury with special reference to methylmercury: a minireview. Environ Health Prev Med 11(4):171–176
Hsi HC, Jiang CB, Yang TH, Chien LC (2014) The neurological effects of prenatal and postnatal mercury/methylmercury exposure on three-year-old children in Taiwan. Chemosphere 100:71–76. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.chemosphere.2013.12.068
Huang SH, Weng KP, Lin CC et al (2017) Maternal and umbilical cord blood levels of mercury, manganese, iron, and copper in southern Taiwan: a cross-sectional study. J Chin Med Assoc 80(7):442–451. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jcma.2016.06.007
Ip P, Wong V, Ho M, Lee J, Wong W (2004) Environmental mercury exposure in children: south China’s experience. Pediatr Int 46(6):715–721. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1442-200x.2004.01972.x
Jacobson JL, Muckle G, Ayotte P, Dewailly E, Jacobson SW (2015) Relation of prenatal methylmercury exposure from environmental sources to childhood IQ. Environ Health Perspect 123(8):827–833. https://doi.org/10.1289/ehp.1408554
Japan Food Safety Commission (2005) Food safety risk assessment related to methylmercury in seafood. http://www.fsc.go.jp/english/topics/methylmercury_risk_assessment.pdf. Accessed 23 Sept 2016
JECFA (Joint Food and Agriculture Organization/WHO (World Health Organization) Expert Committeeon Food Additives) (2003) Summary and conclusions. The sixty-first meeting of Joint FAO/WHO Expert Committee on Food Additives, Rome. http://ftp.fao.org/es/esn/jecfa/jecfa61sc.pdf. Accessed 15 Sept 2016
Jeong KS, Park H, Ha E et al (2017) High maternal blood mercury level is associated with low verbal IQ in children. J Korean Med Sci 32(7):1097–1104. https://doi.org/10.3346/jkms.2017.32.7.1097
Julvez J, Grandjean P (2013) Genetic susceptibility to methylmercury developmental neurotoxicity matters. Front Genet 4:278. https://doi.org/10.3389/fgene.2013.00278
Kachenpukdee N, Santerre CR, Ferruzzi MG, Oonsivilai R (2016) Modified dietary fiber from cassava pulp and assessment of mercury bioaccessibility and intestinal uptake using an in vitro digestion/caco-2 model system. J Food Sci 81(7):T1854–T1863. https://doi.org/10.1111/1750-3841.13336
Kern JK, Geier DA, Sykes LK, Haley BE, Geier MR (2016) The relationship between mercury and autism: a comprehensive review and discussion. J Trace Elem Med Biol 37:8–24. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jtemb.2016.06.002
Kim SA, Jeon CK, Paek DM (2008) Hair mercury concentrations of children and mothers in Korea: implication for exposure and evaluation. Sci Total Environ 402(1):36–42. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.scitotenv.2008.04.010
Kishi R, Sasaki S, Yoshioka E et al (2011) Cohort profile: the Hokkaido study on environment and children’s health in Japan. Int J Epidemiol 40(3):611–618. https://doi.org/10.1093/ije/dyq071
Kishi R, Araki A, Minatoya M et al (2017) The Hokkaido Birth Cohort Study on Environment and Children’s Health: cohort profile—updated 2017. Environ Health Prev Med. https://doi.org/10.1186/s12199-017-0654-3
Laird BD, Chan HM (2013) Bioaccessibility of metals in fish, shellfish, wild game, and seaweed harvested in British Columbia, Canada. Food Chem Toxicol 58:381–387. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.fct.2013.04.033
Landrigan PJ (2010) What causes autism? Exploring the environmental contribution. Curr Opin Pediatr 22(2):219–225. https://doi.org/10.1097/MOP.0b013e328336eb9a
Landrigan PJ, Goldman LR (2011) Children’s vulnerability to toxic chemicals: a challenge and opportunity to strengthen health and environmental policy. Health Aff (Millwood) 30(5):842–850. https://doi.org/10.1377/hlthaff.2011.0151
Lederman SA, Jones RL, Caldwell KL et al (2008) Relation between cord blood mercury levels and early child development in a World Trade Center cohort. Environ Health Perspect 116(8):1085–1091. https://doi.org/10.1289/ehp.10831
Levy M, Schwartz S, Dijak M, Weber JP, Tardif R, Rouahe F (2004) Childhood urine mercury excretion: dental amalgam and fish consumption as exposure factors. Environ Res 94:283–290
Lincoln RA, Shine JP, Chesney EJ, Vorhees DJ, Grandjean P, Senn DB (2011) Fish consumption and mercury exposure among Louisiana recreational anglers. Environ Health Perspect 119(2):245–251. https://doi.org/10.1289/ehp.1002609
Lindberg A, Bjornberg KA, Vahter M, Berglund M (2004) Exposure to methylmercury in non-fish-eating people in Sweden. Environ Res 96(1):28–33. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.envres.2003.09.005
Lindow S (2003) Maternal and neonatal hair mercury concentrations: the effect of dental amalgam. BJOG 110(3):287–291. https://doi.org/10.1046/j.1471-0528.2003.02257.x
Llop S, Murcia M, Aguinagalde X et al (2014) Exposure to mercury among Spanish preschool children: trend from birth to age four. Environ Res 132:83–92. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.envres.2014.03.023
Mandy W, Lai MC (2016) Annual research review: the role of the environment in the developmental psychopathology of autism spectrum condition. J Child Psychol Psychiatry 57(3):271–292. https://doi.org/10.1111/jcpp.12501
Marques RC, Bernardi JV, Abreu L, Dorea JG (2015) Neurodevelopment outcomes in children exposed to organic mercury from multiple sources in a tin-ore mine environment in Brazil. Arch Environ Contam Toxicol 68(3):432–441. https://doi.org/10.1007/s00244-014-0103-x
McDowell MA, Dillon CF, Osterloh J et al (2004) Hair mercury levels in U.S. children and women of childbearing age: reference range data from NHANES 1999–2000. Environ Health Perspect 112(11):1165–1171. https://doi.org/10.1289/ehp.7046
Ministry of the Environment, Japan (2013) Lessons from Minamata disease and mercury management in Japan. https://www.env.go.jp/chemi/tmms/pr-m/mat01/en_full.pdf. Accessed 23 Nov 2017
Miyake Y, Tanaka K, Yasutake A, Sasaki S, Hirota Y (2011) Lack of association of mercury with risk of wheeze and eczema in Japanese children: the Osaka Maternal and Child Health Study. Environ Res 111(8):1180–1184. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.envres.2011.07.003
Miyashita C, Sasaki S, Saijo Y et al (2015) Demographic, behavioral, dietary, and socioeconomic characteristics related to persistent organic pollutants and mercury levels in pregnant women in Japan. Chemosphere 133:13–21. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.chemosphere.2015.02.062
Montuori P, Jover E, Diez S et al (2006) Mercury speciation in the hair of pre-school children living near a chlor-alkali plant. Sci Total Environ 369(1–3):51–58. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.scitotenv.2006.04.003
Murata K, Weihe P, Renzoni A et al (1999) Delayed evoked potentials in children exposed to methylmercury from seafood. Neurotoxicol Teratol 21(4):343–348
Murata K, Sakamoto M, Nakai K et al (2004a) Effects of methylmercury on neurodevelopment in Japanese children in relation to the Madeiran study. Int Arch Occup Environ Health 77(8):571–579. https://doi.org/10.1007/s00420-004-0542-1
Murata K, Weihe P, Budtz-Jorgensen E, Jorgensen PJ, Grandjean P (2004b) Delayed brainstem auditory evoked potential latencies in 14-year-old children exposed to methylmercury. J Pediatr 144(2):177–183. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jpeds.2003.10.059
Murata K, Dakeishi M, Shimada M, Satoh H (2007) Assessment of intrauterine methylmercury exposure affecting child development: messages from the newborn. Tohoku J Exp Med 213(3):187–202. https://doi.org/10.1620/tjem.213.187
Myers GJ, Davidson PW, Cox C et al (2003) Prenatal methylmercury exposure from ocean fish consumption in the Seychelles child development study. Lancet 361(9370):1686–1692. https://doi.org/10.1016/s0140-6736(03)13371-5
Nunes E, Cavaco A, Carvalho C (2014) Children’s health risk and benefits of fish consumption: risk indices based on a diet diary follow-up of two weeks. J Toxicol Environ Health A 77(1–3):103–114. https://doi.org/10.1080/15287394.2014.866926
Ohno T, Sakamoto M, Kurosawa T, Dakeishi M, Iwata T, Murata K (2007) Total mercury levels in hair, toenail, and urine among women free from occupational exposure and their relations to renal tubular function. Environ Res 103(2):191–197. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.envres.2006.06.009
Oken E, Wright RO, Kleinman KP et al (2005) Maternal fish consumption, hair mercury, and infant cognition in a U.S. cohort. Environ Health Perspect 113(10):1376–1380
Oken E, Radesky JS, Wright RO et al (2008) Maternal fish intake during pregnancy, blood mercury levels, and child cognition at age 3 years in a US cohort. Am J Epidemiol 167(10):1171–1181. https://doi.org/10.1093/aje/kwn034
Orenstein ST, Thurston SW, Bellinger DC et al (2014) Prenatal organochlorine and methylmercury exposure and memory and learning in school-age children in communities near the New Bedford Harbor Superfund site, Massachusetts. Environ Health Perspect 122(11):1253–1259. https://doi.org/10.1289/ehp.1307804
Palkovicova L, Ursinyova M, Masanova V, Yu Z, Hertz-Picciotto I (2008) Maternal amalgam dental fillings as the source of mercury exposure in developing fetus and newborn. J Expos Sci Environ Epidemiol 18(3):326–331
Passos CJ, Mergler D, Fillion M et al (2007) Epidemiologic confirmation that fruit consumption influences mercury exposure in riparian communities in the Brazilian Amazon. Environ Res 105(2):183–193. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.envres.2007.01.012
Pesch A, Wilhelm M, Rostek U et al (2002) Mercury concentrations in urine, scalp hair, and saliva in children from Germany. J Expo Anal Environ Epidemiol 12(4):252–258. https://doi.org/10.1038/sj.jea.7500228
Phelps RW, Clarkson TW, Kershaw TG, Wheatley B (1980) Interrelationships of blood and hair mercury concentrations in a North American population exposed to methylmercury. Arch Environ Health 35(3):161–168
Pirard C, Koppen G, De Cremer K et al (2014) Hair mercury and urinary cadmium levels in Belgian children and their mothers within the framework of the COPHES/DEMOCOPHES projects. Sci Total Environ 472:730–740. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.scitotenv.2013.11.028
Prpic I, Milardovic A, Vlasic-Cicvaric I et al (2017) Prenatal exposure to low-level methylmercury alters the child’s fine motor skills at the age of 18 months. Environ Res 152:369–374. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.envres.2016.10.011
Rice D, Barone SJ (2000) Critical periods of vulnerability for the developing nervous system: evidence from humans and animal models. Environ Health Perspect 108(Suppl 3):511–533
Sagiv SK, Thurston SW, Bellinger DC, Amarasiriwardena C, Korrick SA (2012) Prenatal exposure to mercury and fish consumption during pregnancy and attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder-related behavior in children. Arch Pediatr Adolesc Med 166(12):1123–1131. https://doi.org/10.1001/archpediatrics.2012.1286
Saint-Amour D, Roy M-S, Bastien C et al (2006) Alterations of visual evoked potentials in preschool Inuit children exposed to methylmercury and polychlorinated biphenyls from a marine diet. Neurotoxicology 27(4):567–578. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.neuro.2006.02.008
Sakamoto M, Murata K, Kubota M, Nakai K, Satoh H (2010) Mercury and heavy metal profiles of maternal and umbilical cord RBCs in Japanese population. Ecotoxicol Environ Saf 73(1):1–6. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ecoenv.2009.09.010
Sakamoto M, Yasutake A, Domingo JL, Chan HM, Kubota M, Murata K (2013) Relationships between trace element concentrations in chorionic tissue of placenta and umbilical cord tissue: potential use as indicators for prenatal exposure. Environ Int 60:106–111. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.envint.2013.08.007
Salehi Z, Esmaili-Sari A (2010) Hair mercury levels in pregnant women in Mahshahr, Iran: fish consumption as a determinant of exposure. Sci Total Environ 408(20):4848–4854. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.scitotenv.2010.06.027
Sealey LA, Hughes BW, Sriskanda AN et al (2016) Environmental factors in the development of autism spectrum disorders. Environ Int 88:288–298. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.envint.2015.12.021
Sheehan MC, Burke TA, Navas-Acien A, Breysse PN, McGready J, Fox MA (2014) Global methylmercury exposure from seafood consumption and risk of developmental neurotoxicity: a systematic review. Bull World Health Organ 92(4):254–269. https://doi.org/10.2471/BLT.12.116152
Shim S-M, Ferruzzi MG, Kim Y-C, Janle EM, Santerre CR (2009) Impact of phytochemical-rich foods on bioaccessibility of mercury from fish. Food Chem 112(1):46–50. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.foodchem.2008.05.030
Siedlikowski M, Bradley M, Kubow S, Goodrich JM, Franzblau A, Basu N (2016) Bioaccessibility and bioavailability of methylmercury from seafood commonly consumed in North America: in vitro and epidemiological studies. Environ Res 149:266–273. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.envres.2016.02.013
Statistics Bureau, The Japan Ministry of Internal Affairs and Communications (2016a). 2015 Statistics of Medical Care Acitivities in Public Health Insurance. http://www.e-stat.go.jp/SG1/estat/List.do?lid=000001153919. Accessed 24 Mar 2017 (in Japanese)
Statistics Bureau, The Japan Ministry of Internal Affairs and Communications (2016b) Annual report on the family income and expenditure survey 2015. http://www.e-stat.go.jp/SG1/estat/ListE.do?lid=000001153656. Accessed 23 Aug 2016
Strain JJ, Davidson PW, Bonham MP et al (2008) Associations of maternal long-chain polyunsaturated fatty acids, methyl mercury, and infant development in the Seychelles Child Development Nutrition Study. Neurotoxicology 29(5):776–782. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.neuro.2008.06.002
Surkan PJ, Wypij D, Trachtenberg F et al (2009) Neuropsychological function in school-age children with low mercury exposures. Environ Res 109(6):728–733. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.envres.2009.04.006
Suzuki K, Nakai K, Sugawara T et al (2010) Neurobehavioral effects of prenatal exposure to methylmercury and PCBs, and seafood intake: neonatal behavioral assessment scale results of Tohoku study of child development. Environ Res 110(7):699–704. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.envres.2010.07.001
Takahashi Y (2002) Shika you amalgam ni shiyou sareru suigin no hito heno eikyou. St. Marianna Med J 30:1–10 (in Japanese)
The Japan Ministry of Health, Labor and Welfare (2010) Mercury concentations in seafood. http://www.mhlw.go.jp/shingi/2010/05/dl/s0518-8g.pdf. Accessed 8 Aug 2011 (in Japanese)
Tian W, Egeland GM, Sobol I, Chan HM (2011) Mercury hair concentrations and dietary exposure among Inuit preschool children in Nunavut, Canada. Environ Int 37(1):42–48. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.envint.2010.05.017
Torrente M, Gascon M, Vrijheid M et al (2014) Levels of metals in hair in childhood: preliminary associations with neuropsychological behaviors. Toxics 2(1):1–16. https://doi.org/10.3390/toxics2010001
Trasande L, Landrigan PJ, Schechter C (2005) Public health and economic consequences of methyl mercury toxicity to the developing brain. Environ Health Perspect 113(5):590–596. https://doi.org/10.1289/ehp.7743
Uauy R, Dangour AD (2006) Nutrition in brain development and aging: role of essential fatty acids. Nutr Rev 64(5):24–33. https://doi.org/10.1301/nr.2006.may.S24-S33
UNEP (2013) Global mercury assessment 2013: sources, emissions, releases and environmental transport. UNEP Chemicals Branch, Geneva, Switzerland. http://www.unep.org/chemicalsandwaste/Mercury/ReportsandPublications/GlobalMercuryAssessment/tabid/1060889/Default.aspx. Accessed 15 June 2016
UNEP DTIE Chemical Branch and WHO (World Health Organization) Department of Food Safety (2008) Guidance for identifying populations at risk from mercury exposure
US EPA (Environmental Protection Agency) (2001) Water quality criterion for the protection of human health: methylmercury, final. www.ecy.wa.gov/programs/wq/ruledev/wac173201A/comments/0060f.pdf. Accessed 25 Sept 2016
Wang Y, Goodrich JM, Gillespie B, Werner R, Basu N, Franzblau A (2012) An investigation of modifying effects of metallothionein single-nucleotide polymorphisms on the association between mercury exposure and biomarker levels. Environ Health Perspect 120(4):530–534. https://doi.org/10.1289/ehp.1104079
WHO (World Health Organization) (2004) Evaluation of certain food additives and contaminants. WHO technical report series, 922. http://whqlibdoc.who.int/trs/WHO_TRS_922.pdf. Accessed 21 Sept 2016
WHO (World Health Organization) (2010) Children’s exposure to mercury compounds. WHO, Geneva
Woods JS, Heyer NJ, Echeverria D et al (2012) Modification of neurobehavioral effects of mercury by a genetic polymorphism of coproporphyrinogen oxidase in children. Neurotoxicol Teratol 34(5):513–521. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ntt.2012.06.004
Woods JS, Heyer NJ, Russo JE, Martin MD, Pillai PB, Farin FM (2013) Modification of neurobehavioral effects of mercury by genetic polymorphisms of metallothionein in children. Neurotoxicol Teratol 39:36–44. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ntt.2013.06.004
Woods JS, Heyer NJ, Russo JE et al (2014) Genetic polymorphisms of catechol-O-methyltransferase modify the neurobehavioral effects of mercury in children. J Toxicol Environ Health A 77(6):293–312. https://doi.org/10.1080/15287394.2014.867210
Yaginuma-Sakurai K, Shimada M, Ohba T et al (2009) Assessment of exposure to methylmercury in pregnant Japanese women by FFQ. Public Health Nutr 12(12):2352–2358. https://doi.org/10.1017/S1368980009005011
Yasutake A, Matsumoto M, Yamaguchi M, Hachiya N (2003) Current hair mercury levels in Japanese: survey in five districts. Tohoku J Exp Med 199(3):161–169. https://doi.org/10.1620/tjem.199.161
Yasutake A, Matsumoto M, Yamaguchi M, Hachiya N (2004) Current hair mercury levels in Japanese for estimation of methylmercury exposure. J Health Sci 50(2):120–125. https://doi.org/10.1248/jhs.50.120
Acknowledgements
The authors thank the parents and their children who participated in this study. They also express gratitude to Katsuyuki Murata for helpful suggestions, Reiko Kishi for providing the food consumption questionnaire, and Tadashi Oishi for recruiting participants.
Funding
This study was funded by JSPS KAKENHI Grant Number JP23330208 and JP17H02197.
Author information
Authors and Affiliations
Corresponding author
Ethics declarations
Conflict of interest
The authors declare that they have no conflict of interest.
Rights and permissions
About this article
Cite this article
Kusanagi, E., Takamura, H., Chen, SJ. et al. Children’s Hair Mercury Concentrations and Seafood Consumption in Five Regions of Japan. Arch Environ Contam Toxicol 74, 259–272 (2018). https://doi.org/10.1007/s00244-017-0502-x
Received:
Accepted:
Published:
Issue Date:
DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/s00244-017-0502-x