Skip to main content

Advertisement

SpringerLink
Log in

The impact of economic recessions on depression and individual and social well-being: the case of Spain (2006–2013)

  • Original Paper
  • Published:
Social Psychiatry and Psychiatric Epidemiology Aims and scope Submit manuscript

Abstract

Purpose

Although there is abundant evidence about the impact of economic crises on depression and other mental health problems, little is known about the protective role of variables linked to positive functioning (i.e., psychological well-being).

Methods

We analyzed data from Spain, one of the European countries most affected by the 2008–2013 economic recession, collected in Round 3 (R3, 2006) and Round 6 (R6, 2013) of the European Social Survey interviews. Both surveys included measures of psychological well-being, social well-being and depression. Both samples were nationally representative of the general population (R3: 1877 participants, 49.2% men; R6: 1889 participants, 48.9% men).

Results

Data from the R6 survey showed that, compared to data gathered in R3 (i.e., before the onset of the recession) Spanish citizens showed significantly less life satisfaction (95% CIs 0.37–0.63), less personal optimism (95% CIs 0.03–0.15), less social optimism (95% CIs 0.75–0.85), and higher levels of depressive symptoms (95% CIs − 0.74 to − 0.19). Structural equation modeling revealed that protective factors for depression changed in both rounds. In R3 (2006), close relationships, social optimism and social trust were significant mediators between well-being and depression. However, social optimism and social trust were no longer significant in R6 (2013), whereas close relationships remained a partial mediator of the effects of psychological well-being on depression.

Conclusions

Economic crises are associated with a significant increase in depressive symptoms. Furthermore, financial crises seem to have a corrosive impact on mental health by reducing the mediating effects of positive beliefs regarding the good nature of society.

This is a preview of subscription content, log in via an institution to check access.

Access this article

Log in via an institution

Price excludes VAT (USA)
Tax calculation will be finalised during checkout.

Instant access to the full article PDF.

Fig. 1
Fig. 2

Similar content being viewed by others

Notes

  1. We also examined more detailed models entering each of the five eudaimonic WB factors as separate predictors. It was found that although all dimensions are maintained in the model, each factor contributes to mental health in a different way (Supplementary Figs. 3 and 4). The analyses revealed that the model which incorporated the sum of the five Eudaimonic WB dimensions had lower AIC values in both rounds (R3: 126.08 and R6: 87.71) than the corresponding AIC values for the model containing the five dimensions entered separately (R3: 225.87 and R6: 177.85). This confirmed the model which incorporated the Eudaimonic WB aggregate score had the best fit.

References

  1. Abebe DS, Tøge AG, Dahl E (2016) Individual-level changes in self-rated health before and during the economic crisis in Europe. Int J Equity Health 15:1

    Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  2. Acock AC (2005) Working with missing values. J Marriage Fam 67:1012–1028

    Article  Google Scholar 

  3. Bacigalupe A, Esnaola S, Martín U (2016) The impact of the great recession on mental health and its inequalities: the case of a Southern European region, 1997–2013. Int J Equity Health 15:17

    Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  4. Bartoll X, Palència L, Malmusi D, Suhrcke M, Borrell C (2014) The evolution of mental health in Spain during the economic crisis. Eur J Pub Health 24:415–418

    Article  Google Scholar 

  5. Bentler PM (2006) EQS 6 structural equations program manual. Multivariate Software Inc., Encino

    Google Scholar 

  6. Boarini R, Comola M, Smith C, Manchin R, de Keulenaer F (2012) What makes for a better life?: The determinants of subjective well-being in OECD countries—evidence from the Gallup World Poll. OECD statistics working papers, 41

  7. Carver CS, Scheier MF, Segerstrom SC (2010) Optimism. Clin Psychol Rev 30:879–889

    Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  8. Clark AE, Flèche S, Layard R, Powdthavee N, Ward G (2017) The key determinants of happiness and misery. In: Helliwell JF, Layard R, Sachs J (eds) World happiness report 2017. Solutions Network Sustainable Development, New York, pp 122–143

    Google Scholar 

  9. Economou M, Madianos M, Peppou LE, Souliotis K, Patelakis A, Stefanis C (2014) Cognitive social capital and mental illness during economic crisis: a nationwide population-based study in Greece. Soc Sci Med 100:141–147

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  10. European Commission (2009) Economic crisis in Europe: causes, consequences and responses. Luxembourg, Directorate-General for Economic

    Google Scholar 

  11. European Commission (2013) Labour market developments in Europe 2013. European economy series. Brussels, Directorate-General for Economic

    Google Scholar 

  12. European Social Survey (2014) ESS Round 6 (2012/2013): technical report. Centre for Comparative Social Surveys, City University London, London

  13. European Social Survey (2017) Data and documentation. http://www.europeansocialsurvey.org/data/. Accessed 2 Apr 2018

  14. European Social Survey (2017) http://www.europeansocialsurvey.org. Accessed 2 Apr 2018

  15. Fernandez-Rivas A, Gonzalez-Torres MA (2013) The economic crisis in Spain and its impact on the mental health of children and adolescents. Eur Child Adolesc Psychiatry 22:583–586

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  16. Fredrickson BL, Tugade MM, Waugh CE, Larkin GR (2003) What good are positive emotions in crisis? A prospective study of resilience and emotions following the terrorist attacks on the United States on September 11th, 2001. J Personal Soc Psychol 84:365–376

    Article  Google Scholar 

  17. Gabilondo A, Rojas-Farreras S, Vilagut G, Haro JM, Fernández A, Pinto-Meza A, Alonso J (2010) Epidemiology of major depressive episode in a southern European country: results from the ESEMeD-Spain project. J Affect Disord 120:76–85

    Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  18. Gallagher MW, Lopez SJ, Preacher KJ (2009) The hierarchical structure of well-being. J Pers 77:1025–1050

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  19. Gili M, Roca M, Basu S, McKee M, Stuckler D (2013) The mental health risks of economic crisis in Spain: evidence from primary care centres,2006 and 2010. Eur J Pub Health 23:103–108

    Article  Google Scholar 

  20. Glonti K, Gordeev VS, Goryakin Y, Reeves A, Stuckler D, McKee M, Roberts B (2015) A systematic review on health resilience to economic crises. PLOS One 10:e0123117

    Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  CAS  Google Scholar 

  21. Graham C, Higuera L, Lora E (2011) Which health conditions cause the most unhappiness? Health Econ 20:1431–1447

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  22. Helliwell J, Huang H (2013) Comparing the happiness effects or real and on-line friends. PLoS One 8:e72754

    Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  CAS  Google Scholar 

  23. Helliwell JF, Huang H, Wang S (2014) Social capital and well-being in times of crisis. J Happiness Stud 15:145–162

    Article  Google Scholar 

  24. Helliwell JF, Putnam RD (2004) The social context of well-being. Philos Trans R Soc B 359:1435–1446

    Article  Google Scholar 

  25. Hu LT, Bentler PM (1999) Cutoff criteria for fit indexes in covariance structure analysis: conventional criteria versus new alternatives. Struct Equ Model 6:1–55

    Article  Google Scholar 

  26. Huppert FA, So TTC (2013) Flourishing across Europe: application of a new conceptual framework for defining well-being. Soc Indic Res 110:837–861

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  27. Huta V (2013) Eudaimonia. In: David S, Boniwell I, Ayers A (eds) Oxford handbook of happiness. Oxford University, New York, pp 201–213

    Google Scholar 

  28. Jowell R, Roberts C, Fitzgerald R, Eva G (2007) Measuring attitudes cross-nationally. SAGE Publications, London

    Book  Google Scholar 

  29. Karanikolos M, Mladovsky P, Cylus J, Thomson S, Basu S, Stuckler D, Mackenbach JP, McKee M (2013) Financial crisis, austerity, and health in Europe. Lancet 381:1323–1331

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  30. Kawachi I, Berkman LF (2000) Social cohesion, social capital and health. In: Berkman L, Kawachi I (eds) Social epidemiology. Oxford University, New York, pp 174–190

    Google Scholar 

  31. Kessler RC, Bromet EJ (2013) The epidemiology of depression across cultures. Annu Rev Public Health 34:119–138

    Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  32. Keyes CLM (1998) Social well-being. Soc Psychol Q 61:121

    Article  Google Scholar 

  33. Keyes CLM (2005) Mental illness and/or mental health? Investigating axioms of the complete state model of health. J Consult Clin Psychol 73:539–548

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  34. Kline RB (2015) The mediation myth. Basic Appl Soc Psychol 37:202–213

    Article  Google Scholar 

  35. Loosveldt G, Beullens K (2013) “How long will it take?” An analysis of interview length in the fifth round of the European Social Survey. Surv Res Methods 7:69–78

    Google Scholar 

  36. Lopez Bernal JA, Gasparrini A, Artundo CM, McKee M (2013) The effect of the late 2000s financial crisis on suicides in Spain: an interrupted time-series analysis. Eur J Pub Health 23:732–736

    Article  Google Scholar 

  37. Lyubomirsky S, King L, Diener E (2005) The benefits of frequent positive affect: does happiness lead to success? Psychol Bull 131:803–855

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  38. Martin-Beristain C (2006) Humanitarian aid work: a critical approach. University of Pennsylvania Press, Philadelphia

    Google Scholar 

  39. Mackinnon DP, Lockwood CM, Williams J (2004) Confidence limits for the indirect effect: distribution of the product and resampling methods. Multivar Behav Res 39:99–128

    Article  Google Scholar 

  40. Martin-Carrasco M, Evans-Lacko S, Dom G, Christodoulou NG, Samochowiec J, González-Fraile E, Bienkowski P, Gómez-Beneyto M, Dos Santos MJH, Wasserman D (2016) EPA guidance on mental health and economic crises in Europe. Eur Arch Psychiatry Clin Neurosci 266:89–124

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  41. Matthews KA, Raikkonen K, Sutton-Tyrrell K, Kuller LH (2004) Optimistic attitudes protect against progression of carotid atherosclerosis in healthy middle-aged women. Psychosom Med 66:640–644

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  42. Mental Health Commission (2011) The human cost. An overview of the evidence on economic adversity and mental health and recommendations for action. Mental Health Commission, Ireland

    Book  Google Scholar 

  43. Ngamaba KH, Panagioti M, Armitage CJ (2017) How strongly related are health status and subjective well-being? Systematic review and meta-analysis. Eur J Pub Health 27:879–885

    Article  Google Scholar 

  44. Olivera J (2015) Changes in inequality and generalized trust in Europe. Soc Indic Res 124:21–41

    Article  Google Scholar 

  45. Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development. OECD (2015) How’s life? 2015. measuring well-being how’s life? OECD Publishing, Paris

    Google Scholar 

  46. Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development. OECD (2017) Health at a glance 2017. Health at a glance. OECD Publishing, Paris

    Google Scholar 

  47. Peterson C, Seligman MEP (2004) Character strengths and virtues: a handbook and classification. Oxford University Press, New York

    Google Scholar 

  48. Radloff LS (1977) A self-report depression scale for research in the general population. Appl Psychol Meas 1:385–401

    Article  Google Scholar 

  49. Vazquez C, Rahona JJ, Gomez D, Caballero FF, Hervas G (2015) A national representative study of the relative impact of physical and psychological problems on life satisfaction. J Happiness Stud 16:135–148

    Article  Google Scholar 

  50. Reeskens T, Vandecasteele L (2017) Economic hardship and well-being: examining the relative role of individual resources and welfare state effort in resilience against economic hardship. J Happiness Stud 18:41–62

    Article  Google Scholar 

  51. Reeves A, McKee M, Gunnell D, Chang S-S, Basu S, Barr B, Stuckler D (2015) Economic shocks, resilience, and male suicides in the great recession: cross-national analysis of 20 EU countries. Eur J Pub Health 25:404–409

    Article  Google Scholar 

  52. Regidor E, Barrio G, Bravo MJ, de la Fuente L (2014) Has health in Spain been declining since the economic crisis? J Epidemiol Community Health 68:280–282

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  53. Reibling N, Beckfield J, Huijts T, Schmidt-Catran A, Thomson KH, Wendt C (2017) Depressed during the depression: has the economic crisis affected mental health inequalities in Europe? Findings from the European Social Survey (2014) special module on the determinants of health. Eur J Pub Health 27:47–54

    Article  Google Scholar 

  54. Rocha NS, Fleck MP (2011) Evaluation of quality of life and importance given to spirituality/religiousness/personal beliefs (SRPB) in adults with and without chronic health conditions. Rev Psiquiatr Clin 38:19–23

    Article  Google Scholar 

  55. Rodríguez MN, Ruiz MA (2008) Atenuación de la asimetría y de la curtosis de las puntuaciones observadas mediante transformaciones de variables: Incidencia sobre la estructura factorial. Psicologica 29:205–227

    Google Scholar 

  56. Ruhm C (2000) Are recessions good for your health? Q J Econ 115:617–650

    Article  Google Scholar 

  57. Ryff CD, Keyes CLM (1995) The structure of psychological well-being revisited. J Pers Soc Psychol 69:719–727

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  58. Ryff CD, Singer BH (2008) Know thyself and become what you are: a eudaimonic approach to psychological well-being. J Happiness Stud 9:13–39

    Article  Google Scholar 

  59. Samaranayake CB, Arroll B, Fernando AT (2014) Sleep disorders, depression, anxiety and satisfaction with life among young adults: a survey of university students in Auckland, New Zealand. N Z Med J 127:13–22

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  60. De Silva MJ (2005) Social capital and mental illness: a systematic review. J Epidemiol Community Health 59:619–627

    Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  61. Schmutte PS, Ryff CD (1997) Personality and well-being: reexamining methods and meanings. J Pers Soc Psychol 73:549–559

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  62. Springer KW, Pudrovska T, Hauser RM (2011) Does psychological well-being change with age? Longitudinal tests of age variations and further exploration of the multidimensionality of Ryff’s model of psychological well-being. Soc Sci Res 40:392–398

    Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  63. Trafimow D (2017) The probability of simple versus complex causal models in causal analyses. Behav Res Methods 49:739–746

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  64. Van de Velde S, Bracke P, Levecque K, Meuleman B (2010) Gender differences in depression in 25 European countries after eliminating measurement bias in the CES-D 8. Soc Sci Res 39:396–404

    Article  Google Scholar 

  65. Vollmann M, Antoniw K, Hartung FM, Renner B (2011) Social support as mediator of the stress buffering effect of optimism: the importance of differentiating the recipients’and providers’perspective. Eur J Pers 25:146–154

    Article  Google Scholar 

  66. Westerhof GJ, Keyes CLM (2010) Mental illness and mental health: the two continua model across the lifespan. J Adult Dev 17:110–119

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

Download references

Author information

Authors and Affiliations

  1. Department of Clinical Psychology, School of Psychology, Complutense University of Madrid, 28223, Madrid, Spain

    C. Chaves, T. Castellanos, M. Abrams & Carmelo Vazquez

  2. School of Health Sciences, Francisco de Vitoria University, Madrid, Spain

    C. Chaves

Authors
  1. C. Chaves
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

  2. T. Castellanos
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

  3. M. Abrams
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

  4. Carmelo Vazquez
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

Corresponding author

Correspondence to Carmelo Vazquez.

Ethics declarations

Financial support

This research received no specific grant from any funding agency, commercial or not-for-profit sectors.

Conflict of interest

Authors declare that they have no conflict of interest.

Ethical standards

The authors assert that all procedures contributing to this work comply with the ethical standards of the relevant national and institutional committees on human experimentation and with the Helsinki Declaration of 1975, as revised in 2008.

Electronic supplementary material

Rights and permissions

Reprints and permissions

About this article

Check for updates. Verify currency and authenticity via CrossMark

Cite this article

Chaves, C., Castellanos, T., Abrams, M. et al. The impact of economic recessions on depression and individual and social well-being: the case of Spain (2006–2013). Soc Psychiatry Psychiatr Epidemiol 53, 977–986 (2018). https://doi.org/10.1007/s00127-018-1558-2

Download citation

  • Received:

  • Accepted:

  • Published:

  • Issue Date:

  • DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/s00127-018-1558-2

Keywords

Search

Navigation