Abstract
Purpose
The diagnosis of insomnia is based on the presence of four different symptoms: difficulty in initiating sleep (DIS), difficulty in maintaining sleep (DMS), early morning awakening (EMA), and non-restorative sleep (NRS). This study investigated the differences in sociodemographic correlates and psychiatric comorbidity between the four symptoms of insomnia in the general population of South Korea.
Methods
A sample of the population aged 18–64 (N = 6,510) was questioned using a face-to-face interview. Insomnia was defined as having at least one of the four following symptoms three or more times per week: DIS, DMS, EMA, and NRS. Psychiatric disorders were evaluated using the Korean version of Composite International Diagnostic Interview. Logistic regression analysis was used to test each of the sleep outcomes (DIS, DMS, EMA, or NRS) for an association with sociodemographic and clinical variables.
Results
The prevalence of DIS, DMS, EMA, and NRS were 7.9 % (95 % CI 6.6–9.5 %), 7.9 % (95 % CI 6.5–9.6 %), 4.9 % (95 % CI 3.9–6.0 %), and 14.8 % (95 % CI 12.6–17.4 %), respectively. The overall prevalence of insomnia was 19.0 % (95 % CI 16.1–22.2 %). Being separated, divorced, or widowed, being single, having a part-time job, having a psychiatric illness, and having a physical illness were all significantly related to insomnia. Older age also increased the risk of DMS and EMA, and younger age was a risk factor for NRS. The presence of most psychiatric disorders was significantly related to insomnia. However, the relationship between the psychiatric illness and each insomnia symptom varied and was dependent on the insomnia symptom.
Conclusions
Most psychiatric disorders were significantly associated with each insomnia symptom in different ways. Differences in sociodemographic and clinical correlates between the four insomnia symptoms implied the heterogeneous characteristics of insomnia as defined by the current diagnostic criteria.
Similar content being viewed by others
References
Ohayon MM (2002) Epidemiology of insomnia: what we know and what we still need to learn. Sleep Med Rev 6:97–111
American Psychiatric Association (APA) (1994) Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders, 4th edn. American Psychiatric Press, Washington
Ohayon MM, Caulet M, Lemoine P (1998) Comorbidity of mental and insomnia disorders in the general population. Compr Psychiatry 39:185–197
Leger D, Guilleminault C, Dreyfus JP, Delahaye C, Paillard M (2000) Prevalence of insomnia in a survey of 12,778 adults in France. J Sleep Res 9:35–42
Kim K, Uchiyama M, Okawa M, Liu X, Ogihara R (2000) An epidemiological study of insomnia among the Japanese general population. Sleep 23:41–47
Liu X, Uchiyama M, Kim K, Okawa M, Shibui K, Kudo Y, Doi Y, Minowa M, Ogihara R (2000) Sleep loss and daytime sleepiness in the general adult population of Japan. Psychiatry Res 93:1–11
Ohayon MM, Roth T (2001) What are the contributing factors for insomnia in the general population? J Psychosom Res 51:745–755
Ohayon MM, Hong SC (2002) Prevalence of insomnia and associated factors in South Korea. J Psychosom Res 53:593–600
Li RH, Wing YK, Ho SC, Fong SY (2002) Gender differences in insomnia—a study in the Hong Kong Chinese population. J Psychosom Res 53:601–609
Rocha FL, Guerra HL, Lima-Costa MF (2002) Prevalence of insomnia and associated socio-demographic factors in a Brazilian community: the Bambui study. Sleep Med 3:121–126
Shin C, Lee S, Lee T, Shin K, Yi H, Kimm K, Cho N (2005) Prevalence of insomnia and its relationship to menopausal status in middle-aged Korean women. Psychiatry Clin Neurosci 59:395–402
Nomura K, Yamaoka K, Nakao M, Yano E (2005) Impact of insomnia on individual health dissatisfaction in Japan, South Korea, and Taiwan. Sleep 28:1328–1332
Roth T, Jaeger S, Jin R, Kalsekar A, Stang PE, Kessler RC (2006) Sleep problems, comorbid mental disorders, and role functioning in the national comorbidity survey replication. Biol Psychiatry 60:1364–1371
Hartz AJ, Daly JM, Kohatsu ND, Stromquist AM, Jogerst GJ, Kukoyi OA (2007) Risk factors for insomnia in a rural population. Ann Epidemiol 17:940–947
Xiang YT, Ma X, Cai ZJ, Li SR, Xiang YQ, Guo HL, Hou YZ, Li ZB, Li ZJ, Tao YF, Dang WM, Wu XM, Deng J, Lai KY, Ungvari GS (2008) The prevalence of insomnia, its sociodemographic and clinical correlates, and treatment in rural and urban regions of Beijing, China: a general population-based survey. Sleep 31:1655–1662
Gureje O, Makanjuola VA, Kola L (2007) Insomnia and role impairment in the community: results from the Nigerian survey of mental health and wellbeing. Soc Psychiatry Psychiatr Epidemiol 42:495–501
Cho YW, Shin WC, Yun CH, Hong SB, Kim J, Earley CJ (2009) Epidemiology of insomnia in korean adults: prevalence and associated factors. J Clin Neurol 5:20–23
Sutton DA, Moldofsky H, Badley EM (2001) Insomnia and health problems in Canadians. Sleep 24:665–670
Karacan I, Thornby JI, Anch M, Holzer CE, Warheit GJ, Schwab JJ, Williams RL (1976) Prevalence of sleep disturbance in a primarily urban Florida County. Soc Sci Med 10:239–244
Ford DE, Kamerow DB (1989) Epidemiologic study of sleep disturbances and psychiatric disorders. An opportunity for prevention? JAMA 262:1479–1484
Janson C, Gislason T, De Backer W, Plaschke P, Bjornsson E, Hetta J, Kristbjarnason H, Vermeire P, Boman G (1995) Prevalence of sleep disturbances among young adults in three European countries. Sleep 18:589–597
Hetta J, Broman JE, Mallon L (1999) Evaluation of severe insomnia in the general population—implications for the management of insomnia: insomnia, quality of life and healthcare consumption in Sweden. J Psychopharmacol 13:S35–S36
Ohayon MM, Smirne S (2002) Prevalence and consequences of insomnia disorders in the general population of Italy. Sleep Med 3:115–120
Ohayon MM, Partinen M (2002) Insomnia and global sleep dissatisfaction in Finland. J Sleep Res 11:339–346
Zhang B, Wing YK (2006) Sex differences in insomnia: a meta-analysis. Sleep 29:85–93
Yoshioka E, Saijo Y, Kita T, Satoh H, Kawaharada M, Fukui T, Kishi R (2011) Gender differences in insomnia and the role of paid work and family responsibilities. Soc Psychiatry Psychiatr Epidemiol 47:651–662
Peretti-Watel P, Legleye S, Baumann M, Choquet M, Falissard B, Chau N (2009) Fatigue, insomnia and nervousness: gender disparities and roles of individual characteristics and lifestyle factors among economically active people. Soc Psychiatry Psychiatr Epidemiol 44:703–709
Demyttenaere K, Bruffaerts R, Posada-Villa J, Gasquet I, Kovess V, Lepine JP, Angermeyer MC, Bernert S, de Girolamo G, Morosini P, Polidori G, Kikkawa T, Kawakami N, Ono Y, Takeshima T, Uda H, Karam EG, Fayyad JA, Karam AN, Mneimneh ZN, Medina-Mora ME, Borges G, Lara C, de Graaf R, Ormel J, Gureje O, Shen Y, Huang Y, Zhang M, Alonso J, Haro JM, Vilagut G, Bromet EJ, Gluzman S, Webb C, Kessler RC, Merikangas KR, Anthony JC, Von Korff MR, Wang PS, Brugha TS, Aguilar-Gaxiola S, Lee S, Heeringa S, Pennell BE, Zaslavsky AM, Ustun TB, Chatterji S (2004) Prevalence, severity, and unmet need for treatment of mental disorders in the World Health Organization World Mental Health Surveys. JAMA 291:2581–2590
Coren S (1994) The prevalence of self-reported sleep disturbances in young adults. Int J Neurosci 79:67–73
Arendt J, Skene DJ (2005) Melatonin as a chronobiotic. Sleep Med Rev 9:25–39
Sack RL, Auckley D, Auger RR, Carskadon MA, Wright KP Jr, Vitiello MV, Zhdanova IV (2007) Circadian rhythm sleep disorders: part II, advanced sleep phase disorder, delayed sleep phase disorder, free-running disorder, and irregular sleep-wake rhythm. An American Academy of Sleep Medicine review. Sleep 30:1484–1501
Krishnan V, Collop NA (2006) Gender differences in sleep disorders. Curr Opin Pulm Med 12:383–389
Soares CN, Murray BJ (2006) Sleep disorders in women: clinical evidence and treatment strategies. Psychiatr Clin N Am 29:1095–1113
Nofzinger EA, Buysse DJ, Reynolds CF 3rd, Kupfer DJ (1993) Sleep disorders related to another mental disorder (nonsubstance/primary): a DSM-IV literature review. J Clin Psychiatry 54:244–255
Benca RM, Obermeyer WH, Thisted RA, Gillin JC (1992) Sleep and psychiatric disorders. A meta-analysis. Arch Gen Psychiatry 49:651–668
Benca RM (1996) Sleep in psychiatric disorders. Neurol Clin 14:739–764
Breslau N, Roth T, Rosenthal L, Andreski P (1996) Sleep disturbance and psychiatric disorders: a longitudinal epidemiological study of young adults. Biol Psychiatry 39:411–418
Korea National Statistical Office (2006) The Report of Population and Housing Census 2005. Korean National Statistical Office, Daejeon
Cho MJ, Hahm BJ, Suh DW, Hong JP, Bae JN, Kim JK, Lee DW, Cho SJ (2002) Development of a Korean version of the Composite International Diagnostic Interview (K-CIDI). J Korean Neuropsychiatr Assoc 41:123–137
World Health Organization (WHO) (1990) Composite International Diagnostic Interview (CIDI), Version 1.0. World Health Organization, Geneva
World Health Organization (WHO) (1997) Procedures for the Development of New Language Versions of the WHO Composite International Diagnostic Interview (WHO-CIDI). World Health Organization, Geneva
Hahm BJ (2001) Development of a Korean version of the composite international diagnostic interview (K-CIDI) and assessment of its applicability to a Korean population. Dissertation, Seoul National University, Seoul
Ohayon MM, Roberts RE, Zulley J, Smirne S, Priest RG (2000) Prevalence and patterns of problematic sleep among older adolescents. J Am Acad Child Adolesc Psychiatry 39:1549–1556
Roberts RE, Roberts CR, Chen IG (2002) Impact of insomnia on future functioning of adolescents. J Psychosom Res 53:561–569
Ohayon MM (2005) Prevalence and correlates of nonrestorative sleep complaints. Arch Intern Med 165:35–41
Stone KC, Taylor DJ, McCrae CS, Kalsekar A, Lichstein KL (2008) Nonrestorative sleep. Sleep Med Rev 12:275–288
Maartens LW, Leusink GL, Knottnerus JA, Smeets CG, Pop VJ (2001) Climacteric complaints in the community. Fam Pract 18:189–194
Doi Y, Minowa M, Okawa M, Uchiyama M (2000) Prevalence of sleep disturbance and hypnotic medication use in relation to sociodemographic factors in the general Japanese adult population. J Epidemiol 10:79–86
Ohayon MM, Carskadon MA, Guilleminault C, Vitiello MV (2004) Meta-analysis of quantitative sleep parameters from childhood to old age in healthy individuals: developing normative sleep values across the human lifespan. Sleep 27:1255–1273
Foley DJ, Monjan A, Simonsick EM, Wallace RB, Blazer DG (1999) Incidence and remission of insomnia among elderly adults: an epidemiologic study of 6,800 persons over three years. Sleep 22(Suppl 2):S366–S372
Andersson HI, Ejlertsson G, Leden I, Schersten B (1999) Impact of chronic pain on health care seeking, self care, and medication. Results from a population-based Swedish study. J Epidemiol Community Health 53:503–509
Bardage C, Isacson DG (2000) Self-reported side-effects of antihypertensive drugs: an epidemiological study on prevalence and impact on health-state utility. Blood Press 9:328–334
Bolge SC, Doan JF, Kannan H, Baran RW (2009) Association of insomnia with quality of life, work productivity, and activity impairment. Qual Life Res 18:415–422
Klink M, Quan SF (1987) Prevalence of reported sleep disturbances in a general adult population and their relationship to obstructive airways diseases. Chest 91:540–546
Dikeos D, Georgantopoulos G (2011) Medical comorbidity of sleep disorders. Curr Opin Psychiatry 24:346–354
Chervin RD, Guilleminault C (1996) Obstructive sleep apnea and related disorders. Neurol Clin 14:583–609
Ferguson BJ (2004) Influences of allergic rhinitis on sleep. Otolaryngol Head Neck Surg 130:617–629
Shaheen NJ, Madanick RD, Alattar M, Morgan DR, Davis PH, Galanko JA, Spacek MB, Vaughn BV (2007) Gastroesophageal reflux disease as an etiology of sleep disturbance in subjects with insomnia and minimal reflux symptoms: a pilot study of prevalence and response to therapy. Dig Dis Sci 53:1493–1499
Levenstein S (1999) Peptic ulcer at the end of the 20th century: biological and psychological risk factors. Can J Gastroenterol 13:753–759
Taylor DJ, Mallory LJ, Lichstein KL, Durrence HH, Riedel BW, Bush AJ (2007) Comorbidity of chronic insomnia with medical problems. Sleep 30:213–218
Ohayon MM, Caulet M, Philip P, Guilleminault C, Priest RG (1997) How sleep and mental disorders are related to complaints of daytime sleepiness. Arch Intern Med 157:2645–2652
Belt NK, Kronholm E, Kauppi MJ (2009) Sleep problems in fibromyalgia and rheumatoid arthritis compared with the general population. Clin Exp Rheumatol 27:35–41
Monti JM, Monti D (2004) Sleep in schizophrenia patients and the effects of antipsychotic drugs. Sleep Med Rev 8:133–148
Krystal AD, Goforth HW, Roth T (2008) Effects of antipsychotic medications on sleep in schizophrenia. Int Clin Psychopharmacol 23:150–160
Wirshing DA, Pierre JM, Wirshing WC (2002) Sleep apnea associated with antipsychotic-induced obesity. J Clin Psychiatry 63:369–370
Landolt HP, Roth C, Dijk DJ, Borbely AA (1996) Late-afternoon ethanol intake affects nocturnal sleep and the sleep EEG in middle-aged men. J Clin Psychopharmacol 16:428–436
Roehrs T, Roth T (2001) Sleep, sleepiness, sleep disorders and alcohol use and abuse. Sleep Med Rev 5:287–297
Kaneita Y, Ohida T, Takemura S, Sone T, Suzuki K, Miyake T, Yokoyama E, Umeda T (2005) Relation of smoking and drinking to sleep disturbance among Japanese pregnant women. Prev Med 41:877–882
Phillips BA, Danner FJ (1995) Cigarette smoking and sleep disturbance. Arch Intern Med 155:734–737
Wetter DW, Young TB (1994) The relation between cigarette smoking and sleep disturbance. Prev Med 23:328–334
Lexcen FJ, Hicks RA (1993) Does cigarette smoking increase sleep problems. Percept Mot Skills 77:16–18
Hurt RD, Dale LC, Fredrickson PA, Caldwell CC, Lee GA, Offord KP, Lauger GG, Marusic Z, Neese LW, Lundberg TG (1994) Nicotine patch therapy for smoking cessation combined with physician advice and nurse follow-up. One-year outcome and percentage of nicotine replacement. JAMA 271:595–600
Hatsukami DK, Dahlgren L, Zimmerman R, Hughes JR (1988) Symptoms of tobacco withdrawal from total cigarette cessation versus partial cigarette reduction. Psychopharmacology 94:242–247
Hughes JR, Higgins ST, Bickel WK (1994) Nicotine withdrawal versus other drug withdrawal syndromes: similarities and dissimilarities. Addiction 89:1461–1470
Okuji Y, Matsuura M, Kawasaki N, Kometani S, Shimoyama T, Sato M, Oga K, Abe K (2002) Prevalence of insomnia in various psychiatric diagnostic categories. Psychiatry Clin Neurosci 56:239–240
Aigner M, Graf A, Freidl M, Prause W, Weiss M, Kaup-Eder B, Saletu B, Bach M (2003) Sleep disturbances in somatoform pain disorder. Psychopathology 36:324–328
Acknowledgments
This study was supported by a research Grant from the Ministry of Health, Welfare, and Family Affairs of the Republic of Korea.
Author information
Authors and Affiliations
Corresponding author
Rights and permissions
About this article
Cite this article
Kim, BS., Jeon, H.J., Hong, J.P. et al. DSM-IV psychiatric comorbidity according to symptoms of insomnia: a nationwide sample of Korean adults. Soc Psychiatry Psychiatr Epidemiol 47, 2019–2033 (2012). https://doi.org/10.1007/s00127-012-0502-0
Received:
Accepted:
Published:
Issue Date:
DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/s00127-012-0502-0