Abstract
Iron oxide-copper-gold (IOCG) deposits, defined primarily by their elevated magnetite and/or hematite contents, constitute a broad, ill-defined clan related to a variety of tectono-magmatic settings. The youngest and, therefore, most readily understandable IOCG belt is located in the Coastal Cordillera of northern Chile and southern Peru, where it is part of a volcano-plutonic arc of Jurassic through Early Cretaceous age. The arc is characterised by voluminous tholeiitic to calc-alkaline plutonic complexes of gabbro through granodiorite composition and primitive, mantle-derived parentage. Major arc-parallel fault systems developed in response to extension and transtension induced by subduction roll-back at the retreating convergent margin. The arc crust was attenuated and subjected to high heat flow. IOCG deposits share the arc with massive magnetite deposits, the copper-deficient end-members of the IOCG clan, as well as with manto-type copper and small porphyry copper deposits to create a distinctive metallogenic signature.
The IOCG deposits display close relations to the plutonic complexes and broadly coeval fault systems. Based on deposit morphology and dictated in part by lithological and structural parameters, they can be separated into several styles: veins, hydrothermal breccias, replacement mantos, calcic skarns and composite deposits that combine all or many of the preceding types. The vein deposits tend to be hosted by intrusive rocks, especially equigranular gabbrodiorite and diorite, whereas the larger, composite deposits (e.g. Candelaria-Punta del Cobre) occur within volcano-sedimentary sequences up to 2 km from pluton contacts and in intimate association with major orogen-parallel fault systems. Structurally localised IOCG deposits normally share faults and fractures with pre-mineral mafic dykes, many of dioritic composition, thereby further emphasising the close connection with mafic magmatism. The deposits formed in association with sodic, calcic and potassic alteration, either alone or in some combination, reveal evidence of an upward and outward zonation from magnetite-actinolite-apatite to specular hematite-chlorite-sericite and possess a Cu-Au-Co-Ni-As-Mo-U-(LREE) (light rare earth element) signature reminiscent of some calcic iron skarns around diorite intrusions. Scant observations suggest that massive calcite veins and, at shallower palaeodepths, extensive zones of barren pyritic feldspar-destructive alteration may be indicators of concealed IOCG deposits.
The balance of evidence strongly supports a genetic connection of the central Andean IOCG deposits with gabbrodiorite to diorite magmas from which the ore fluid may have been channelled by major ductile to brittle fault systems for several kilometres vertically or perhaps even laterally. The large, composite IOCG deposits originated by ingress of the ore fluid to relatively permeable volcano-sedimentary sequences. The mafic magma may form entire plutons or, alternatively, may underplate more felsic intrusions, as witnessed by the ore-related diorite dykes, but in either case the origin of the ore fluid at greater, unobserved depths may be inferred. It is concluded that external 'basinal' fluids were not a requirement for IOCG formation in the central Andes, although metamorphic, seawater, evaporitic or meteoric fluids may have fortuitously contaminated the magmatic ore fluid locally. The proposed linkage of central Andean and probably some other IOCG deposits to oxidised dioritic magmas may be compared with the well-documented dependency of several other magmatic-hydrothermal deposit types on igneous petrochemistry. The affiliation of a spectrum of base-metal poor gold-(Bi-W-Mo) deposit styles to relatively reduced monzogranite-granodiorite intrusions may be considered as a closely analogous example.
Similar content being viewed by others
References
Aberg G, Aguirre L, Levi B, Nyström JO (1984) Spreading-subsidence and generation of ensialic marginal basins: an example from the early Cretaceous of central Chile. In: Kokelaar BP, Howells MF (eds) Marginal basin geology: volcanic and associated sedimentary and tectonic processes in modern and ancient marginal basins. Geol Soc Lond Spec Publ 16:185–193
Aguirre L, Féraud G, Morata D, Vergara M, Robinson D (1999) Time interval between volcanism and burial metamorphism and rate of basin subsidence in a Cretaceous Andean extensional setting. Tectonophysics 313:433–447
Arancibia ON, Clark AH (1996) Early magnetite-amphibole-plagioclase alteration-mineralization in the Island Copper porphyry copper-gold-molybdenum deposit, British Columbia. Econ Geol 91:402–438
Ardill J, Flint S, Chong G, Wilke H (1998) Sequence stratigraphy of the Mesozoic Domeyko Basin, northern Chile. J Geol Soc Lond 155:71–88
Arévalo C, Grocott J, Pringle M, Martin W (2000) Edad 40Ar/39Ar de la mineralización en el yacimiento Candelaria, Región de Atacama. Actas 9th Congr Geol Chileno 2:92–96
Atherton MP, Aguirre L (1992) Thermal and geotectonic setting of Cretaceous volcanic rocks near Ica, Peru, in relation to Andean crustal thinning. J S Am Earth Sci 5:47–69
Atkin BP, Injoque-Espinoza JL, Harvey PK (1985) Cu-Fe amphibole mineralization in the Arequipa segment. In: Pitcher WS, Atherton MP, Cobbing EJ, Beckinsale RD (eds) Magmatism at a plate edge. The Peruvian Andes. Blackie, Glasgow, pp 261–270
Barton MD, Johnson DA (1996) Evaporitic source model for igneous-related Fe oxide-(REE-Cu-Au-U) mineralization. Geology 24:259-262
Barton MD, Johnson DA (2000) Alternative brine sources for Fe-oxide (-Cu-Au) systems: Implications for hydrothermal alteration and metals. In: Porter TM (ed) Hydrothermal iron oxide copper-gold and related deposits: A global perspective. Australian Mineral Foundation, Adelaide, pp 43–60
Benavides-Cáceres V (1999) Orogenic evolution of the Peruvian Andes: The Andean cycle. In: Skinner BJ (ed) Geology and ore deposits of the central Andes. Soc Econ Geol Spec Publ 7:61–107
Berg K, Baumann A (1985) Plutonic and metasedimentary rocks from the Coastal Range of northern Chile: Rb-Sr and U-Pb isotopic systematics. Earth Planet Sci Lett 75:101–115
Blevin PL, Chappell BW (1992) The role of magma sources, oxidation states and fractionation in determining the granite metallogeny of eastern Australia. Trans R Soc Edinburgh Earth Sci 83:305–316
Bookstrom AA (1977) The magnetite deposits of El Romeral, Chile. Econ Geol 72:1101–1130
Boric P. R, Díaz F. F, Maksaev J. V (1990) Geología y yacimientos metalíferos de la Región de Antofagasta. Serv Nac Geol Miner Bol 40:1–246
Brown M, Díaz F, Grocott J (1993) Displacement history of the Atacama fault system 25°00′S–27°00′S, northern Chile. Geol Soc Am Bull 105:1165–1174
Browne QJ, Thompson TB, Maher BJ (2000) Shear-hosted copper mineralization within the Atacama Fault Zone, El Salado district, northern Chile. In: Cluer JK, Price JG, Struhsacker EM, Hardyman RF, Morris CL (eds) Geology and ore deposits 2000: The Great Basin and beyond Proc Symp Geological Society of Nevada, Reno, pp 467–472
Buddington AF (1933) Correlation of kinds of igneous rocks with kinds of mineralization. In: Ore deposits of the Western States (Lindgren Volume). Am Inst Mining Metall Eng, New York, pp 350–385
Caldas V. J (1978) Geología de los Cuadrángulos de San Juan, Acarí y Yauca. Hojas: (31-m, 31-n, 32-n). Inst Geol Miner Bol 30:1–78
Cann RM, Godwin CI (1983) Genesis of magmatic magnetite-apatite lodes, Iron Mask batholith, south-central British Columbia. In: Geological fieldwork 1982. BC Ministry Energy Mines Petrol Resources, Pap 1983–1, pp 266–284
Clark AH, Farrar E, Kontak DJ, Langridge RJ, Arenas F. MJ, France LJ, McBride SL, Woodman PL, Wasteneys HA, Sandeman HA, Archibald DA (1990) Geologic and geochronologic constraints on the metallogenic evolution of the Andes of southeastern Peru. Econ Geol 85:1520–1583
Cobbing EJ (1978) The Andean geosyncline in Peru and its distinction from Alpine geosynclines. J Geol Soc Lond 135:207–218
Cobbing EJ (1985) The tectonic setting of the Peruvian Andes. In: Pitcher WS, Atherton MP, Cobbing EJ, Beckinsale RD (eds) Magmatism at a plate edge. The Peruvian Andes. Blackie, Glasgow, pp 3–12
Cornejo P, Matthews SJ (2000) Relación entre magmatismo-tectónica y su implicancia en la formación de sistemas de pórfidos cupríferos: Yacimiento El Salvador, II Región, Chile. Actas 9th Congr Geol Chileno 1:184–188
Cornejo P, Matthews S, Orrego M, Robles W (2000) Etapas de mineralización asociadas a alteración potásica en un sistema de Fe-Cu-Au: Yacimiento Mantoverde, III Región de Atacama, Chile. Actas 9th Congr Geol Chileno 2:97–101
Correa A (2000) Geología del yacimiento de Fe-Cu Teresa de Colmo, Región de Antofagasta, Chile. Actas 9th Congr Geol Chileno 2:102–106
Correa A (2003) El Espino, un nuevo depósito del tipo Fe-Cu (Au) en Chile. Comuna de Illapel, Región de Coquimbo. Tésis de Magister, Universidad Católica del Norte, Antofagasta, Chile, 69 pp
Dallmeyer RD, Brown M, Grocott J, Taylor GK, Treloar PJ (1996) Mesozoic magmatic and tectonic events within the Andean plate boundary zone, 26°–27°30′S, north Chile: constraints from 40Ar/39Ar mineral ages. J Geol 104:19–40
Dalziel IWD (1986) Collision and Cordilleran orogenesis: an Andean perspective. In: Coward MP, Ries AC (eds) Collision tectonics. Geol Soc Lond Spec Publ 19:389–404
de Haller A, Zúñiga A. J, Corfu F, Fontboté L (2002) The iron oxide-Cu-Au deposit of Raúl-Condestable, Mala, Lima, Peru. Resúmen 11th Congr Geol Peruano
Díaz A, Vivallo W (2001) Metallogenic events in the Coastal Cordillera of Copiapó region, northern Chile (26–28°S). In: Proc 3rd S Am Symp Isotope Geology, Ext Abstr Vol, Sociedad Geológica de Chile, Santiago, CD-ROM, pp 468–471
Díaz C. A, Lledó V. H, Vivallo S. W (1998) Yacimientos metalíferos de la Hoja Los Loros, Región de Atacama. Serv Nac Geol Miner Mapa Recursos Mineral Chile 2:1–25
Einaudi MT, Meinert LD, Newberry RJ (1981) Skarn deposits. In: Skinner BJ (ed) Econ Geol 75th Anniv Vol, pp 317–391
Espinoza P. C, Gelcich E. S, Vivallo S. W (1999) Yacimientos metalíferos de la Hoja Quebrada Salitrosa, Región de Atacama. Serv Nac Geol Miner Mapa Recursos Mineral Chile 4:1–21
Espinoza S (1990) The Atacama-Coquimbo ferriferous belt, northern Chile. In: Fontboté L, Amstutz GC, Cardozo M, Cedillo E, Frutos J (eds) Stratabound copper deposits in the Andes. Soc Geol Appl Mineral Dep Spec Publ 8:353–364
Espinoza R. S, Véliz G. H, Esquivel L. J, Arias F. J, Moraga B. A (1996) The cupriferous province of the Coastal Range, northern Chile. In: Camus F, Sillitoe RH, Petersen R (eds) Andean copper deposits: New discoveries, mineralization styles and metallogeny. Soc Econ Geol Spec Publ 5:19–32
Farrar E, Clark AH, Haynes SJ, Quirt GS, Conn H, Zentilli M (1970) K-Ar evidence for the post-palaeozoic migration of granitic intrusion foci in the Andes of northern Chile. Earth Planet Sci Lett 9:17–28
Flint S, Turner P (1988) Alluvial fan and fan-delta sedimentation in a forearc extensional setting: the Cretaceous Coloso basin of northern Chile. In: Nemec W, Steel RJ (eds) Fan deltas: Sedimentology and tectonic settings. Blackie, Glasgow, pp 387–399
Fox KA (2000) Fe oxide (Cu-Au) mineralization and alteration at the Productora prospect, Chile. MSc Thesis, Colorado School of Mines, Colorado, 141 pp
Fox KA, Hitzman MW (2001) Superimposed magnetite and iron oxide Cu-Au mineralization at Productora, Chilean iron belt. Geol Soc Am Abstr Prog 33(6):A-129
Fréraut R, Cuadra W (1994) Mineralización de Fe, Cu y Au en la franja cretácica de la Costa. Regiones III y IV de Chile. Actas 7th Congr Geol Chileno 2:1046–1050
Gelcich E. S, Espinoza P. C, Vivallo S. W (1998) Yacimientos metalíferos de las Hojas Chañaral y Diego de Almagro, Región de Atacama. Serv Nac Geol Miner Mapa Recursos Mineral Chile 3:17
Gleeson SA, Yardley BWD, Boyce AJ, Fallick AE, Munz I-A (2000) From basin to basement: the movement of surface fluids into the crust. J Geochem Explor 69–70:527–531
Grocott J, Taylor GK (2002) Magmatic arc fault systems, deformation partitioning and emplacement of granitic complexes in the Coastal Cordillera, northern Chilean Andes (25°30′S to 27°00′S). J Geol Soc Lond 159:425–442
Grocott J, Wilson J (1997) Ascent and emplacement of granitic plutonic complexes in subduction-related extensional environments. In: Holness MB (ed) Deformation-enhanced fluid transport in the Earth's crust and mantle. Chapman and Hall, London, pp 173–195
Grocott J, Brown M, Dallmeyer RD, Taylor GK, Treloar PJ (1994) Mechanisms of continental growth in extensional arcs: an example from the Andean plate boundary zone. Geology 22:391–394
Groves DI, Vielreicher NM (2001) The Phalaborwa (Palabora) carbonatite-hosted magnetite-copper sulfide deposit, South Africa: an end-member of the iron-oxide copper-gold-rare earth element deposit group? Miner Deposita 36:189–194
Hammerschmidt K, Döbel R, Friedrichsen H (1992) Implications of 40Ar/39Ar dating of early Tertiary volcanic rocks from the north-Chilean Precordillera. Tectonophysics 202:55–81
Hattori KH, Keith JD (2001) Contribution of mafic melt to porphyry copper mineralization: evidence from Mount Pinatubo, Philippines, and Bingham Canyon, Utah, USA. Miner Deposita 36:799–806
Haynes DW (2000) Iron oxide copper (-gold) deposits: their position in the ore deposit spectrum and modes of origin. In: Porter TM (ed) Hydrothermal iron oxide copper-gold and related deposits: A global perspective. Australian Mineral Foundation, Adelaide, pp 71–90
Hervé A. M (1987) Movimiento sinistral en el Cretácico Inferior de la zona de falla Atacama al norte de Paposo (24°S), Chile. Rev Geol Chile 31:37–42
Hitzman MW (2000) Iron oxide-Cu-Au deposits: what, where, when, and why. In: Porter TM (ed) Hydrothermal iron oxide copper-gold and related deposits: A global perspective. Australian Mineral Foundation, Adelaide, pp 9–25
Hitzman MW, Oreskes N, Einaudi MT (1992) Geological characteristics and tectonic setting of Proterozoic iron oxide (Cu-U-Au-REE) deposits. Precamb Res 58:241–287
Holmgren D. C (1987) Antecedentes para un modelo genético del yacimiento El Soldado, V Región de Valparaíso, Chile. Rev Geol Chile 30:3–18
Hopf S (1990) The Agustina mine, a volcanic-hosted copper deposit in northern Chile. In: Fontboté L, Amstutz GC, Cardozo M, Cedillo E, Frutos J (eds) Stratabound copper deposits in the Andes. Soc Geol Appl Mineral Dep Spec Publ 8:421–434
Hopper D, Correa A (2000) The Panulcillo and Teresa de Colmo copper deposits: two contrasting examples of Fe-ox-Cu-Au mineralisation from the Coastal Cordillera of Chile. In: Porter TM (ed) Hydrothermal iron oxide copper-gold and related deposits: A global perspective. Australian Mineral Foundation, Adelaide, pp 177–189
Injoque J (2000) Distribución de yacimientos de sulfuros masivos (VMS) y de cobre tipo manto (CuTM) en el arco volcánico cretácico de los Andes peruanos y sudamericanos. Bol Soc Geol Perú 90:19–34
Injoque J (2001) Segmentación de los gabros y dioritas tempranos del Batolito de la Costa (Superunidades Patap y Pisco), la fase deformativa Mochica y mineralización asociadas, como parte de la segmentación cretácea de la Costa Peruana. Bol Soc Geol Perú 92:7–21
Injoque E. J (2002) Fe oxide-Cu-Au deposits in Peru: An integrated view. In: Porter TM (ed) Hydrothermal iron oxide copper-gold and related deposits: A global perspective, vol 2. PGC Publishing, Adelaide, pp 97–113
Injoque E. J, Atkin B, Harvey P, Snelling N (1988) Mineralogía, geochímica y geocronología del skarn geotermal de hierro de Marcona. Bol Soc Geol Perú 79:65–80
Iriarte D. S, Arévalo V. C, Mpodozis M. C, Rivera H. O (1996) Mapa geológica de la Hoja Carrera Pinto, Región de Atacama. Serv Nac Geol Miner Mapas Geol 3
Ishihara S, Ulriksen CE (1980) The magnetite-series and ilmenite-series granitoids of Chile. Min Geol 30:183–190
Jensen EP, Barton MD (2000) Gold deposits related to alkaline magmatism. In: Hagemann SG, Brown PE (eds) Gold in 2000. Rev Econ Geol 13:279–314
Kirkham RV (1996) Volcanic redbed copper. In: Eckstrand OR, Sinclair WD, Thorpe RI (eds) Geology of Canadian mineral deposit types. Geol Surv Can Geol Can 8:241–252
Kirkham RV (2001) Sediment-hosted stratiform copper (SSC), other stratabound base metal deposits and the importance of basinal brines and/or evaporites, halotectonics and halokinesis. In: Piestrzyñski A et al. (eds) Mineral deposits at the beginning of the 21st century. Proc Joint 6th Biennial SGA-SEG Meeting, Kraków, AA Balkema, Lisse, pp 15–18
Ladino M, Tomlinson A, Blanco N (1997) Nuevos antecedentes para la edad de la deformación cretácica en Sierra de Moreno, II Región de Antofagasta—norte de Chile. Actas 8th Congr Geol Chileno 1:103–107
Lang JR, Thompson JFH (2001) Alkalic porphyry Cu-Au deposits: Magmatic-hydrothermal mineralization with similarities to Fe-oxide Cu-Au deposits. Geol Soc Am Abstr Prog 33(6):A-3
Lang JR, Stanley CR, Thompson JFH (1995) Porphyry copper-gold deposits related to alkalic igneous rocks in the Triassic–Jurassic arc terranes of British Columbia. In: Pierce FW, Bolm JG (eds) Porphyry copper deposits of the American Cordillera. Ariz Geol Soc Dig 20:219–236
Lang JR, Baker T, Hart C, Mortensen JK (2000) An exploration model for intrusion-related gold systems. Soc Econ Geol Newsl 40:1, 6–14
Lara P. L, Godoy P-B. E (1998) Hoja Quebrada Salitrosa, Región de Atacama. Serv Nac Geol Miner Mapas Geol 4
Leveille RA, Marschik R (2001) Iron oxide copper-gold deposits in South America. In: Proc 2nd Congr Int de Prospectores y Exploradores, Lima, 2001, Inst de Ingenieros de Minas del Perú, Lima, CD-ROM, 6 pp
Levi B, Nyström JO, Thiele R, Aberg G (1988) Geochemical trends in Mesozoic–Tertiary volcanic rocks from the Andes in central Chile and tectonic implications. J S Am Earth Sci 1:63–74
Levi B, Aguirre L, Nyström JO, Padilla H, Vergara M (1989) Low-grade regional metamorphism in the Mesozoic–Cenozoic sequences of the Central Andes. J Metamorph Geol 7:487–495
Ly Z. P (2000) Yacimiento Cerro Lindo. In: Primer volumen de monografías de yacimientos minerales peruanos. Historía, exploración y geología. (Volumen Luis Hochschild Plaut) Inst de Ingenieros de Minas del Perú, Lima, pp 349–358
MacDonald GD, Arnold LC (1994) Geological and geochemical zoning of the Grasberg igneous complex, Irian Jaya, Indonesia. In: van Leeuwen TM, Hedenquist JW, James LP, Dow JAS (eds) Mineral deposits in Indonesia—Discoveries of the past 25 years. J Geochem Explor 50:143–178
Maksaev V, Zentilli M (2002) Chilean strata-bound Cu- (Ag) deposits: An overview. In: Porter TM (ed) Hydrothermal iron oxide copper-gold and related deposits: A global perspective, vol 2. PGC Publishing, Adelaide, pp 185–205
Mark G, Oliver NHS, Williams PJ, Valenta RK, Crookes RA (2000) The evolution of the Ernest Henry Fe-oxide-(Cu-Au) hydrothermal system. In: Porter TM (ed) Hydrothermal iron oxide copper-gold and related deposits: A global perspective. Australian Mineral Foundation, Adelaide, pp 123–136
Marschik R, Fontboté L (1996) Copper(-iron) mineralization and superposition of alteration events in the Punta del Cobre belt, northern Chile. In: Camus F, Sillitoe RH, Petersen R (eds) Andean copper deposits: New discoveries, mineralization styles and metallogeny. Soc Econ Geol Spec Publ 5:171–190
Marschik R, Fontboté L (2001a) The Punta del Cobre Formation, Punta del Cobre-Candelaria area, northern Chile. J S Am Earth Sci 14:401–433
Marschik R, Fontboté L (2001b) The Candelaria-Punta del Cobre iron oxide Cu-Au (-Zn-Ag) deposits, Chile. Econ Geol 96:1799–1826
Marschik R, Leveille RA, Martin W (2000) La Candelaria and the Punta del Cobre district, Chile. Early Cretaceous iron oxide Cu-Au(-Zn-Ag) mineralization. In: Porter TM (ed) Hydrothermal iron oxide copper-gold and related deposits: A global perspective. Australian Mineral Foundation, Adelaide, pp 163–175
Martin W, Díaz R, Nuñéz R, Olivares R, Calderón C, Calderón P (1997) The updated Candelaria geologic mine model. Actas 8th Congr Geol Chileno 2:1063–1067
Mathur R, Marschik R, Ruiz J, Munizaga F, Leveille RA, Martin W (2002) Age of mineralization of the Candelaria Fe oxide Cu-Au deposit and the origin of the Chilean iron belt, based on Re-Os isotopes. Econ Geol 97:59–71
McAllister JF, Flores W. H, Ruiz F. C (1950) Quicksilver deposits of Chile. US Geol Surv Bull 964-E:361–400
McNutt RH, Crocket JH, Clark AH, Caelles JC, Farrar E, Haynes SJ (1975) Initial 87Sr/86Sr ratios of plutonic and volcanic rocks of the central Andes between latitudes 26° and 29° south. Earth Planet Sci Lett 27:305–313
Meinert LM (1992) Skarns and skarn deposits. Geosci Can 19:145–162
Ménard J-J (1995) Relationship between altered pyroxene diorite and the magnetite mineralization in the Chilean Iron Belt, with emphasis on the El Algarrobo iron deposits (Atacama region, Chile). Miner Deposita 30:268–274
Moody TC, Hawkes N, Ramos D, Loader S, Panez R, Abbott C, Carbonell J, Sillitoe RH (2003) The Marcona iron oxide-copper deposits, Peru. In: Proc 3rd Congr Int de Prospectores y Exploradores, Lima, Conferencias, Inst de Ingenieros de Minas del Perú, Lima, CD-ROM, 2 pp
Moore ND, Agar RA (1985) Variations along a batholith: the Arequipa segment of the coastal batholith of Peru. In: Pitcher WS, Atherton MP, Cobbing EJ, Beckinsale RD (eds) Magmatism at a plate edge. The Peruvian Andes. Blackie, Glasgow, pp 108–118
Moscoso D. R, Nasi P. C, Salinas Z. P (1982) Hoja Vallenar y parte Norte de La Serena, Regiones de Atacama y Coquimbo. Serv Nac Geol Miner Carta Geol Chile 55:1–100
Mpodozis C, Ramos V (1990) The Andes of Chile and Argentina. In: Ericksen GE, Cañas Pinochet MT, Reinemund JA (eds) Geology of the Andes and its relation to hydrocarbon and mineral resources. Circum-Pacific Council Energy Min Resour Earth Sci Ser 11:59–90
Munizaga F, Huete C, Hervé F (1985) Geocronología y razones iniciales Sr87/Sr86 de la 'Faja Pacífica' de 'Desarrollos Hidrotermales'. Actas 4th Congr Geol Chileno 3:357–379
Muñoz N, Elgueta S, Harambour S (1988) El sistema Jurásico en el curso superior de la quebrada de Azapa, I Región: Implicancias palaeogeográficas. Actas 5th Congr Geol Chileno 1:A403–A415
Naslund HR, Henríquez F, Nyström JO, Vivallo W, Dobbs FM (2002) Magmatic iron ores and associated mineralization: Examples from the Chilean High Andes and Coastal Cordillera. In: Porter TM (ed) Hydrothermal iron oxide copper-gold and related deposits: A global perspective, vol 2. PGC Publishing, Adelaide, pp 207–226
Nyström JO, Henríquez F (1994) Magmatic features of iron ores of the Kiruna type in Chile and Sweden: Ore textures and magnetite geochemistry. Econ Geol 89:820–839
Orrego M, Zamora R (1991) Manto Ruso, un yacimiento de cobre ligado a la Falla de Atacama, norte de Chile. Actas 6th Congr Geol Chileno 1:174–178
Orrego M, Robles W, Sanhueza A, Zamora R, Infanta J (2000) Mantos Blancos y Mantoverde: depósitos del tipo Fe-Cu-Au? Una comparación con implicancias en la exploración. Actas 9th Congr Geol Chileno 2:145–149
Oyarzún J (1988) Algunos temas principales de la metalogénesis cretácica en el norte y centro de Chile. Actas 5th Congr Geol Chileno 3:G37–G52
Palacios M. O, Caldas V. J, Vela V. C (1992) Geología de los Cuadrángulos de Lima, Lurín, Chancay y Chosica. Hojas 25-i, 25-j, 24-i, 24-j. Carta Geol Nac Inst Geol Min Metal Bol 43:1–163
Parada MA (1990) Granitoid plutonism in central Chile and its geodynamic significance; A review. In: Kay SM, Rapela CW (eds) Plutonism from Antarctica to Alaska. Geol Soc Am Spec Pap 241:51–66
Parada MA, Nyström JO, Levi B (1999) Multiple sources for the Coastal Batholith of central Chile (31–34°S): geochemical and Sr-Nd isotopic evidence and tectonic implications. Lithos 46:505–521
Perelló J, Martini R, Arcos R, Muhr R (2003) Buey Muerto: porphyry copper mineralization in the Early Cretaceous arc of northern Chile. In: Resumenes 10th Congr Geol Chileno (in press)
Pichowiak S (1994) Early Jurassic to Early Cretaceous magmatism in the Coastal Cordillera and the Central Depression of north Chile. In: Reutter K-J, Scheuber E, Wigger PJ (eds) Tectonics of the southern central Andes. Springer, Berlin Heidelberg New York, pp 203–217
Pichowiak S, Breitkreuz C (1984) Volcanic dykes in the North Chilean Coast Range. Geol Rundsch 73:853–868
Pichowiak S, Buchelt M, Damm K-W (1990) Magmatic activity and tectonic setting of the early stages of the Andean cycle in northern Chile. In: Kay SM, Rapela CW (eds) Plutonism from Antarctica to Alaska. Geol Soc Am Spec Pap 241:127–144
Pollard PJ (2000) Evidence of a magmatic fluid and metal source for Fe-oxide Cu-Au mineralisation. In: Porter TM (ed) Hydrothermal iron oxide copper-gold and related deposits: A global perspective. Australian Mineral Foundation, Adelaide, pp 27–41
Pollard PJ (2001) Sodic(-calcic) alteration in Fe-oxide-Cu-Au districts: an origin via unmixing of magmatic H2O-CO2-NaCl±CaCl2-KCl fluids. Miner Deposita 36:93–100
Pop N, Heaman L, Edelstein O, Isache C, Zentilli M, Pecskay Z, Valdman S, Rusu C (2000) Geocronología de las rocas igneas y los productos de alteración hidrotermal relacionadas con la mineralización de Cu-Fe (Au) del sector Adriana-Carola-Cobriza (parte este del distrito Punta del Cobre-Candelaria), en base a dataciones U-Pb en circón, 40Ar/39Ar y K-Ar. Actas 9th Congr Geol Chileno 2:155–160
Ramírez R. RD (1996) Geology of the Mantos Blancos mine. In: Green SM, Struhsacker E (eds) Geology and ore deposits of the American Cordillera. Field trip guidebook and compendium. Geological Society of Nevada, Reno, pp 466–481
Ramos VA (2000) The southern central Andes. In: Cordani UG, Milani EJ, Thomaz Filho A, Campos DA (eds) Tectonic evolution of South America. In: Proc 31st Int Geol Congr, Rio de Janeiro, pp 561–604
Ramos VA, Aleman A (2000) Tectonic evolution of the Andes. In: Cordani UG, Milani EJ, Thomaz Filho A, Campos DA (eds) Tectonic evolution of South America. In: Proc 31st Int Geol Congr, Rio de Janeiro, pp 635–685
Ray GE, Dick LA (2002) The Productora prospect in north-central Chile: An example of an intrusion-related Candelaria type Fe-Cu-Au hydrothermal system. In: Porter TM (ed) Hydrothermal iron oxide copper-gold and related deposits: A global perspective, vol 2. PGC Publishing, Adelaide, pp 131–151
Ray GE, Lefebure DV (2000) A synopsis of iron oxide ± Cu ± Au ± P ± REE deposits of the Candelaria-Kiruna-Olympic Dam family. In: Geological fieldwork 1999. BC Ministry Energy Mines Pap 2000–1, pp 267–271
Ray GE, Webster ICL (2000) Characteristics of the Fe oxide-Cu-Au family and the potential for these deposits in British Columbia. In: Iron oxide copper-gold deposits: Separating fact from fantasy. Short course notes. Vancouver Mining Association, BC Yukon Chamber Mines, Vancouver, pp F1–F47
Reeve JS, Cross KC, Smith RN, Oreskes N (1990) Olympic Dam copper-uranium-gold-silver deposit. In: Hughes FE (ed) Geology of the mineral deposits of Australia and Papua New Guinea, vol 2. Aust Inst Min Metall Monogr 14:1009–1035
Regan PF (1985) The early basic intrusions. In: Pitcher WS, Atherton MP, Cobbing EJ, Beckinsale RD (eds) Magmatism at a plate edge. The Peruvian Andes. Blackie, Glasgow, pp 72–89
Ripley EM, Ohmoto H (1977) Mineralogic, sulfur isotope, and fluid inclusion studies of the stratabound copper deposits at the Raul mine, Peru. Econ Geol 72:1017–1041
Rivano GS, Sepúlveda HP (1991) Hoja Illapel, Región de Coquimbo. Serv Nac Geol Miner Carta Geol Chile 69:1–132
Rogers G, Hawkesworth CJ (1989) A geochemical traverse across the North Chilean Andes: evidence for crust generation from the mantle wedge. Earth Planet Sci Lett 91:271–285
Romeuf N, Aguirre L, Soler P, Féraud G, Jaillard E, Ruffet G (1995) Middle Jurassic volcanism in the northern and central Andes. Rev Geol Chile 22:245–259
Ruiz F. C, Ericksen GE (1962) Metallogenic provinces of Chile, S.A. Econ Geol 57:91–106
Ruiz F. C, Peebles L. F (1988) Geología, distribución y génesis de los yacimientos metalíferos chilenos. Editorial Universitaria, Santiago, 334 pp
Ruiz F. C, Corvalán J, Klohn C, Klohn E, Levi B (1965) Geología y yacimientos metalíferos de Chile. Instituto de Investigaciones Geológicas, Santiago, 305 pp
Ruiz F. C, Ortiz F, Moraga A, Aguilar A (1968) Genesis of the Chilean iron ore deposits of Mesozoic age. Rep 23rd Int Geol Congr 7:323–338
Rutland RWR (1971) Andean orogeny and ocean floor spreading. Nature 233:252–255
Ryan PJ, Lawrence AL, Jenkins RA, Matthews JP, Zamora G. JC, Marino W. E, Urqueta D. I (1995) The Candelaria copper-gold deposit, Chile. In: Pierce FW, Bolm JG (eds) Porphyry copper deposits of the American Cordillera. Ariz Geol Soc Dig 20:625–645
Saric R. N (1978) Geología y mineralización del yacimiento La Africana. Rev Geol Chile 6:31–40
Sato T (1984) Manto type copper deposits in Chile—a review. In: Special issue for overseas geology and mineral resources (I)—calc-alkaline magmatism and related mineralization in Chile. Bull Geol Surv Jpn 35:565–582
Scheuber E, Andriessen PAM (1990) The kinematic and geodynamic significance of the Atacama Fault Zone, northern Chile. J Struct Geol 12:243–257
Scheuber E, Gonzalez G (1999) Tectonics of the Jurassic–Early Cretaceous magmatic arc of the north Chilean Coastal Cordillera (22°–26°S): a story of crustal deformation along a convergent plate boundary. Tectonics 18:895–910
Scheuber E, Hammerschmidt K, Friedrichsen H (1995) 40Ar/39Ar and Rb-Sr analyses from ductile shear zones from the Atacama Fault Zone, northern Chile: the age of deformation. Tectonophysics 250:61–87
Sempere T, Carlier G, Soler P, Fornari M, Carlotto V, Jacay J, Arispe O, Néraudeau D, Cárdenas J, Rosas S, Jiménez N (2002a) Late Permian–Middle Jurassic lithospheric thinning in Peru and Bolivia, and its bearing on Andean-age tectonics. Tectonophysics 345:153–181
Sempere T, Jacay J, Pino A, Fornari M, Marocco R, Flores A, Acosta J, Bedoya C (2002b) Adelgazamiento litosférico Triásico–Jurásico en el extremo sur del Perú. In: Resúmenes 11th Congr Geol Peruano
Shackleton RM, Ries AC, Coward MP, Cobbold PR (1979) Structure, metamorphism and geochronology of the Arequipa massif of coastal Peru. J Geol Soc Lond 136:195–214
Sillitoe RH (1990) Copper deposits and Andean evolution. In: Ericksen GE, Cañas Pinochet MT, Reinemund JA (eds) Geology of the Andes and its relation to hydrocarbon and mineral resources. Circum-Pacific Council Energy Min Resour Earth Sci Ser 11:285–311
Sillitoe RH (1992) Gold and copper metallogeny of the central Andes—past, present, and future exploration objectives. Econ Geol 87:2205–2216
Sillitoe RH (1998) Major regional factors favouring large size, high hypogene grade, elevated gold content and supergene oxidation and enrichment of porphyry copper deposits. In: Porter TM (ed) Porphyry and hydrothermal copper and gold deposits. A global perspective. Australian Mineral Foundation, Adelaide, pp 21–34
Sillitoe RH (2000) Gold-rich porphyry deposits: Descriptive and genetic models and their role in exploration and discovery. In: Hagemann SG, Brown PE (eds) Gold in 2000. Rev Econ Geol 13:315–345
Sillitoe RH (2002) Some metallogenic features of gold and copper deposits related to alkaline rocks and consequences for exploration. Miner Deposita 37:4–13
Sillitoe RH, Gappe IM Jr (1984) Philippine porphyry copper deposits: Geologic setting and characteristics. United Nations ESCAP CCOP Tech Publ 14, 89 pp
Skewes AM, Arévalo A, Floody R, Zuñiga PH, Stern CR (2002) The giant El Teniente breccia deposit: Hypogene copper distribution and emplacement. In: Goldfarb RJ, Nielsen RL (eds) Integrated methods for discovery: Global exploration in the twenty-first century. Soc Econ Geol Spec Publ 9:299–332
Snyder LD, Russell JK (1995) Petrogenetic relationships and assimilation processes in the alkalic Iron Mask batholith, south-central British Columbia. In: Schroeter TG (ed) Porphyry deposits of the northwestern Cordillera of North America. Can Inst Min Metall Petrol Spec Vol 46:593–608
Suárez M, Bell CM (1992) Triassic rift-related sedimentary basins in northern Chile (24°–29°S). J S Am Earth Sci 6:109–121
Suárez M, Bell CM (1994) Braided rivers, lakes and sabkhas of the Upper Triassic Cifuncho Formation, Atacama Region, Chile. J S Am Earth Sci 7:25–33
Sugaki A, Campos E, Kojima S (2000) Mineralogy of the Panulcillo skarn copper deposit, Coquimbo Region, Chile. Rev Geol Chile 27:139–155
Taylor GK, Randall DE (2000) Structural analysis of dyke emplacement directions as an aid to palaeomagnetic studies: an example from northern Chile. Geophys J Int 141:253–258
Taylor GK, Grocott J, Pope A, Randall DE (1998) Mesozoic fault systems, deformation and fault block rotation in the Andean forearc: a crustal scale strike-slip duplex in the Coastal Cordillera of northern Chile. Tectonophysics 299:93–109
Thompson JFH, Sillitoe RH, Baker T, Lang JR, Mortensen JK (1999) Intrusion-related gold deposits associated with tungsten-tin provinces. Miner Deposita 34:323–334
Tilling R (1976) El Batolito Andino cerca de Copiapó, Provincía de Atacama. Geología y petrología. Rev Geol Chile 3:1–24
Tosdal RM, Richards JP (2001) Magmatic and structural controls on the development of porphyry Cu ± Mo ± Au deposits. In: Tosdal RM, Richards JP (eds) Structural controls of ore deposits. Rev Econ Geol 14:157–181
Ullrich TD, Clark AH (1999) The Candelaria copper-gold deposit, Región III, Chile: Paragenesis, geochronology and fluid composition. In: Stanley CJ et al. (eds) Mineral deposits: Processes to processing, vol 1. In: Proc 5th Biennial SGA Meeting and 10th Quadren IAGOD Symp, London, AA Balkema, Rotterdam, pp 201–204
Ullrich TD, Clark AH, Kyser TK (2001) The Candelaria Cu-Au deposit, III region, Chile: Product of long-term mixing of magmatic-hydrothermal and evaporite-sourced fluids. Geol Soc Am Abstr Prog 33(6):A-3
Vicente J-C (1990) Early Late Cretaceous overthrusting in the Western Cordillera of southern Peru. In: Ericksen GE, Cañas Pinochet MT, Reinemund JA (eds) Geology of the Andes and its relation to hydrocarbon and mineral resources. Circum-Pacific Council Energy Min Resour Earth Sci Ser 11:91–117
Vidal CE (1985) Metallogenesis associated with the Coastal Batholith of Peru: a review. In: Pitcher WS, Atherton MP, Cobbing EJ, Beckinsale RD (eds) Magmatism at a plate edge. The Peruvian Andes. Blackie, Glasgow, pp 243–249
Vidal C. CE (1987) Kuroko-type deposits in the Middle-Cretaceous marginal basin of central Peru. Econ Geol 82:1409–1430
Vidal C. CE, Injoque-Espinoza J, Sidder GB, Mukasa SB (1990) Amphibolitic Cu-Fe skarn deposits in the central coast of Peru. Econ Geol 85:1447–1461
Vila T, Lindsay N, Zamora R (1996) Geology of the Mantoverde copper deposit, northern Chile: A specularite-rich, hydrothermal-tectonic breccia related to the Atacama Fault Zone. In: Camus F, Sillitoe RH, Petersen R (eds) Andean copper deposits: New discoveries, mineralization styles and metallogeny. Soc Econ Geol Spec Publ 5:157–169
Vivallo W, Henríquez F (1998) Génesis común de los yacimientos estratoligados y vetiformes de cobre del Jurásico Medio a Superior en la Cordillera de la Costa, Región de Antofagasta, Chile. Rev Geol Chile 25:199–228
Vivallo W, Henríquez F, Espinoza S (1995) Los depósitos de hierro del tipo magnetite-apatita: geoquímica de las rocas volcánicas asociadas y potencialidad de la mena de hierro como fuente de mineralización de oro. Rev Geol Chile 22:159–175
Wang S, Williams PJ (2001) Geochemistry and origin of Proterozoic skarns at the Mount Elliott Cu-Au(-Co-Ni) deposit, Cloncurry district, NW Queensland, Australia. Miner Deposita 36:109–124
Williams PJ (1999) Fe-oxide-Cu-Au deposits of the Olympic Dam/Ernest Henry-type. In: New developments in the understanding of some major ore types and environments, with implications for exploration. In: Proc Prospectors and Developers Association of Canada Short Course, Toronto, pp 2–43
Wilson JJ (1963) Cretaceous stratigraphy of central Andes of Peru. Bull Am Assoc Petrol Geol 47:1–34
Wolf F, Fontboté L, Amstutz GC (1990) The Susana copper(-silver) deposit in northern Chile. Hydrothermal mineralization associated with a Jurassic volcanic arc. In: Fontboté L, Amstutz GC, Cardozo M, Cedillo E, Frutos J (eds) Stratabound copper deposits in the Andes. Soc Geol Appl Mineral Dep Spec Publ 8:319–338.
Zamora R, Castillo B (2001) Mineralización de Fe-Cu-Au en el distrito Mantoverde, Cordillera de la Costa, III Región de Atacama, Chile. In: Proc 2nd Congr Int de Prospectores y Exploradores, Lima, Conferencias, Inst de Ingenieros de Minas del Perú, Lima, CD-ROM, 13 pp
Acknowledgements
This article is an expanded version of a keynote address presented at the 11th Quadrennial IAGOD Symposium and Geocongress 2002 in Windhoek, Namibia. The Organising Committee, and especially its chairman, Roy Miller, are thanked for the invitation to attend and, indirectly, for the impetus to prepare this review. Thanks are due to the many companies and geologists with whom I have had the pleasure of working on IOCG deposits and prospects in Chile, Peru and elsewhere over the last three decades. Special acknowledgement is also due to the late Carlos Ruiz Fuller and his colleagues, and their several generations of successors, at the Chilean Geological Survey (Servicio Nacional de Geología y Minería, formerly Instituto de Investigaciones Geológicas) for pioneering studies of regional geology and IOCG deposits in the Coastal Cordillera. The manuscript was improved as a result of reviews by Constantino Mpodozis, Pepe Perelló, Gerry Ray, John Thompson and, on behalf of Mineralium Deposita, Lluís Fontboté and Peter Pollard.
Author information
Authors and Affiliations
Corresponding author
Additional information
Editorial handling: B. Lehmann
Rights and permissions
About this article
Cite this article
Sillitoe, R.H. Iron oxide-copper-gold deposits: an Andean view. Miner Deposita 38, 787–812 (2003). https://doi.org/10.1007/s00126-003-0379-7
Received:
Accepted:
Published:
Issue Date:
DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/s00126-003-0379-7