Skip to main content

Advertisement

SpringerLink
Log in

Invasion essentials: does secondary chemistry plasticity contribute to the invasiveness of Thymus vulgaris L.?

  • Research Paper
  • Published:
Chemoecology Aims and scope Submit manuscript

Abstract

Increasing our understanding of spatial patterns of plant secondary chemistry variation may help us understand the mechanisms that underlie plant invasions involving species which exhibit chemical phenotypic variation. We analysed qualitative and quantitative variation in the essential oil terpenes produced by Thymus vulgaris L. (thyme) plants inside and at the edge of thyme-invaded plant communities on north- and south-facing slopes at ten sites across Central Otago, New Zealand. We tested the hypotheses that (1) there are foliar terpene composition quantitative and qualitative differences between the inside and edge of thyme-invaded communities and that these differences vary between north- and south-facing slopes and (2) that environmental variables affect the quantity and quality of thyme essential oil composition. Terpene concentrations were determined using ethanol extraction and GC FID/MS. Environmental data were collected from inside, at the edge and outside of thyme stands. We used multivariate statistical analysis to test differences in foliar terpene composition and linear modelling to investigate the effects of environmental variables on terpene composition. We found no evidence of a link between aspect- and invasion edge-related patterns of variation of thyme’s essential oil chemistry. Site-related differences for aspect and position in thyme stands indicated that thyme’s terpene production may be modulated by environmental factors such as soil moisture, clay, carbon, silt, sand, colloid, N and NH4 +. The role of thyme’s novel chemistry in the processes that underlie the spatial patterns of thyme’s successful invasion is modulated by environmental factors.

This is a preview of subscription content, log in via an institution to check access.

Access this article

Log in via an institution

Price excludes VAT (USA)
Tax calculation will be finalised during checkout.

Instant access to the full article PDF.

Institutional subscriptions

Fig. 1
Fig. 2
Fig. 3

Similar content being viewed by others

References

  • Adams RP (2007) Identification of essential oil components by Gas Chromatography/Mass Spectroscopy. Allured Publishing Corp, Carol Stream

    Google Scholar 

  • Allen SE, Grimshaw HM, Parkinson JA, Quarmby C (1986) Chemical analysis of ecological materials. Blackwell Scientific, Oxford

    Google Scholar 

  • Amiot J, Salmon Y, Collin C, Thompson JD, Waller D (2005) Differential resistance to freezing and spatial distribution in a chemically polymorphic plant Thymus vulgaris. Ecol Lett 8:370–377

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Anderson MJ (2001) A new method for non-parametric multivariate analysis of variance. Aust Ecol 26:32–46

    Google Scholar 

  • Anderson MJ (2002) DISTLM v.2: A Fortran computer program to calculate distance-based multivariate analysis for a linear model. Information Sheet, Department of Statistics, University of Auckland, Auckland, New Zealand

  • Ates E (2011) Some chemical and morphological properties of five clover species (Trifolium sp.) at different aspect of pasture in Belovets village (Razgrad), Bulgaria. Int J Plant Prod 5:255–262

    CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Barney JN, Whitlow TH, Ditommaso A (2009) Evolution of an invasive phenotype: shift to belowground dominance and enhanced competitive ability in the introduced range. Plant Ecol 202:275–284

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Blair AC, Wolfe LM (2004) The evolution of an invasive plant: an experimental study with Silene latifolia. Ecology 85:3035–3042

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Blakemore LC, Searle PL, Daly BK (1987) Methods for chemical analysis of soils. NZ Soil Bureau Scientific Report 80

  • Blossey B, Nötzold R (1995) Evolution of increased competitive ability in invasive nonindigenous plants: a Hypothesis. J Ecol 83:887–889

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Boira H, Blanquer A (1998) Environmental factors affecting chemical variability of essential oils in Thymus piperella L. Biochem Syst Ecol 26:811–822

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Brenes-Arguedas T, Coley PD (2005) Phenotypic variation and spatial structure of secondary chemistry in a natural population of a tropical tree species. Oikos 108:410–420

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Brothers TS, Spingarn A (1992) Forest fragmentation and alien plant invasion of Central Indiana old-growth forests. Conserv Biol 6:91–100

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Cadenasso ML, Traynor MM, Pickett STA (1997) Functional location of forest edges: gradients of multiple physical factors. Can J Forest Res 27:774–782

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Callaway R, Aschehoug ET (2000) Invasive plants versus their new and old neighbors: a mechanism for exotic invasion. Science 290:521–523

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Callaway RM, Ridenour WM (2004) Novel weapons: invasive success and the evolution of increased competitive ability. Front Ecol Environ 2:436–443

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Callaway RM, Cipollini D, Barto K, Thele GC, Hallett SG, Prati D, Stinson K, Klironomos J (2008) Novel weapons: invasive plant suppresses fungal mutualists in America but not in its native Europe. Ecology 89:1043–1055

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Cappuccino N, Arnason JT (2006) Novel chemistry of invasive exotic plants. Biol Lett 2:189–193

    Article  CAS  PubMed Central  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Cockayne L (1928) The vegetation of New Zealand. W. Engelmann, Leipzig

    Google Scholar 

  • Darwin C (1859) On the origin of species by means of natural selection, or the preservation of favoured races in the struggle for life. John Murray, London

    Google Scholar 

  • Ehlers B, Thompson J (2004) Do co-occurring plant species adapt to one another? The response of Bromus eretus to the presence of different Thymus vulgaris chemotypes. Oecologia 141:511–518

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Ehrenfeld JG (2006) A potential novel source of information for screening and monitoring the impact of exotic plants on ecosystems. Biol Invasion 8:1511–1521

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Elton CS (1958) The ecology of invasions by animals and plants. Methuen and Co., London

    Book  Google Scholar 

  • Fan L, Chen Y, Yuan J, Yang Z (2010) The effect of Lantana camara Linn. invasion on soil chemical and microbiological properties and plant biomass accumulation in southern China. Geoderma 154:370–378

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Forman RTT (1995) Some general principles of landscape and regional ecology. Landsc Ecol 10:133–142

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • FOSS (2000a) Determination of ammonium in 2 m KCI soil extracts by FIAStar 5000 Foss Tecator AB2000 AN 5226

  • FOSS (2000b) FIAStar 5012 system Tecator Application Note ASN 62-02/83; and ASN 110-01/92 and ASN 65-31/84

  • Gomulkiewicz R, Thompson JN, Holt RD, Nuismer SL, Hochberg ME (2000) Hot spots, cold spots, and the geographic mosaic theory of coevolution. Am Nat 156:156–174

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Gouyon P, Vernet P, Guillerm J, Valdeyron G (1986) Polymorphisms and environment: the adaptive value of the oil polymorphisms in Thymus vulgaris L. Heredity 57:59–66

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Johnson CB, Kazantzis A, Skoula M, Mitteregger U, Novak J (2004) Seasonal, populational and ontogenic variation in the volatile oil content and composition of individuals of Origanum vulgare subsp. Hirtum, assessed by GC headspace analysis and by SPME sampling of individual oil glands. Phytochem Anal 15:286–292

    Google Scholar 

  • Keefover-Ring K (2008) One chemistry, two continents: Function and maintenance of chemical polymorphism in the mint family (Lamiaceae). Ph.D. 3303896, University of Colorado at Boulder, United States – Colorado. Retrieved from http://proquest.umi.com/pqdweb?did=1507551951andFmt=7andclientId=18927andRQT=309andVName=PQD

  • Keefover-Ring K (2013) Making scents of defense: do fecal shields and herbivore-caused volatiles match host plant chemical profiles? Chemoecology 23:1–11

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Keefover-Ring K, Thompson JD, Linhart YB (2009) Beyond six scents: defining a seventh Thymus vulgaris chemotype new to southern France by ethanol extraction. Flavour Frag J 24:117–122

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Letchamo W, Gosselin A (1995) Effects of HPS supplemental lighting and soil water levels on growth, essential oil content and composition of two thyme (Thymus vulgaris L) clonal selections. Can J Plant Sci 75:231–238

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Linhart YB, Thompson JD (1995) Terpene-based selective herbivory by Helix aspersa (Mollusca) on Thymus vulgaris (Labiatae). Oecologia 102:126–132

    Google Scholar 

  • Linhart YB, Thompson JD (1999) Thyme is of the essence: biochemical polymorphism and multi-species deterrence. Evol Ecol Res 1:151–171

    Google Scholar 

  • Linhart YB, Keefover-Ring K, Mooney KA, Breland B, Thompson JD (2005) A chemical polymorphism in a multitrophic setting: thyme monoterpene composition and food web structure. Am Nat 166:517–529

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Mack RN, Simberloff D, Lonsdale WM, Evans H, Clout M, Bazzaz FA (2000) Biotic invasions: causes, epidemiology, global consequences, and control. Ecol Appl 10:689–710

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • McArdle BH, Anderson MJ (2001) Fitting multivariate models to community data: a comment on distance based redundancy analysis. Ecology 82:290–297

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • McGimpsey JA, Douglas MH, Van Klink JW, Beauregard DA, Perry NB (1994) Seasonal variation in essential oil yield and composition from naturalized Thymus vulgaris L. in New Zealand. Flavour Frag J 9:347–352

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Metservice.com (2012) Climate Summary 1969–1988. Retrieved 30 June 2012

  • Metson AJ (1956) Methods of chemical analysis for soil survey samples. NZ Soil Bur Bull 12:168–171

    Google Scholar 

  • Moles AT, Gruber MAM, Bonser SP (2008) A new framework for predicting invasive plant species. J Ecol 96:13–17

    Google Scholar 

  • Morgan RK (1989) Chemotypic characteristics of Thymus vulgaris L. in Central Otago, New Zealand. J Biogeogr 16:483–491

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Murcia C (1995) Edge effects in fragmented forests: implications for conservation. Trends Ecol Evol 10:58–62

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Paavolainen L, Kitunen V, Smolander A (1998) Inhibition of nitrification in forest soil by monoterpenes. Plant Soil 205:147–154

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Pimentel D, Lach L, Zuniga R, Morrison D (2000) Environmental and economic costs of nonindigenous species in the United States. Bioscience 50:53–65

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Poulose AJ, Croteau R (1978) Biosynthesis of aromatic monoterpenes: conversion of γ-terpinene to p-cymene and thymol in Thymus vulgaris L. Arch Biochem Biophys 187:307–314

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Richardson DM, Pyšek P, Rejmánek M, Barbour MG, Panetta FD, West CJ (2000) Naturalization and invasion of alien plants: concepts and definitions. Divers Distrib 6:93–107

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Rowell DL (1994) Soil science, methods and applications. Longman Scientific and Technical, London

    Google Scholar 

  • Schaffner U, Ridenour WM, Wolf VC, Bassett T, Muller C, Muller-Scharer H, Sutherland S, Lortie CJ, Callaway RM (2011) Plant invasions, generalist herbivores, and novel defense weapons. Ecology 92:829–835

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Tanaka S, Yamaura T, Shigemoto R, Tabata M (1989) Phytochrome-mediated production of monoterpenes in thyme seedlings. Phytochemistry 28:2955–2957

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Tarayre M, Thompson JD, Escarre J, Linhart YB (1995) Intra-specific variation in the inhibitory effects of Thymus vulgaris Labiatae monoterpenes on seed germination. Oecologia 10:110–118

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Thompson JD (2002) Population structure and the spatial dynamics of genetic polymorphisms in thyme. In: Stahl-Biskup E, Saez F (eds) Thyme: The Genus Thymus. Taylor and Francis, London, pp 44–74

    Google Scholar 

  • Thompson JD (2005) Plant evolution in the Mediterranean. University of Oxford Press, Oxford

    Book  Google Scholar 

  • Thompson JD, Manicacci D, Tarayre M (1998) Thirty-five years of thyme: a tale of two polymorphisms. Why so many females? Why so many chemotypes? Bioscience 48:805–815

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Thompson JD, Chalchat JC, Michet A, Ehlers B, Linhart YB (2003) Qualitative and quantitative variation in monoterpene co-occurrence and composition in the essential oil of Thymus vulgaris chemotypes. J Chem Ecol 29:859–880

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Thompson JD, Gauthier P, Amiot J, Ehlers BK, Collin C, Fossat J, Barrios V, Arnaud-Miramont F, Keefover-Ring KEN, Linhart YB (2007) Ongoing adaptation to Mediterranean climate extremes in a chemically polymorphic plant. Ecol Monogr 77:421–439

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Thomson GM (1922) The naturalization of animals and plants in New Zealand. Cambridge University Press, Cambridge

    Book  Google Scholar 

  • Vernet P, Gouyon R, Valdeyron G (1986) Genetic control of the oil content in Thymus vulgaris L: a case of polymorphism in a biosynthetic chain. Genetica 69:227–231

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Vitousek PM, D’Antonio CM, Loope LL, Westbrooks R (1996) Biological invasions as global environmental change. Am Sci 84:468–468

    Google Scholar 

  • Vokou D, Kokkin S, Bessiere J-M (1993) Geographic variation of Greek oregano (Origanum vulgare ssp. hirtum) essential oils. Biochem Syst Ecol 21:287–295

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Weidenhamer JD, Macias FA, Fisher NH, Williamson GB (1993) Just how insoluble are monoterpenes. J Chem Ecol 19:1799–1807

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • White C (1986) Volatile and water-soluble inhibitors of nitrogen mineralization and nitrification in a Ponderosa pine ecosystem. Biol Fertil Soils 2:97–104

    Google Scholar 

  • White C (1994) Monoterpenes—their effects on ecosystem nutrient cycling. J Chem Ecol 20:1381–1406

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Wilkinson EL, Dann GM, Smith GJS (1979) Thyme in Central Otago. BulletinTussock Grasslands and Mountain Lands Institute, Lincoln College, Christchurch

    Google Scholar 

  • Wolf JJ, Beatty SW, Carey G (2003) Invasion by Sweet Clover (Melilotus) in Montane Grasslands, Rocky Mountain National Park. Ann Assoc Am Geogr 93:531–543

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Yamaura T, Tanaka S, Tabata M (1991) Participation of phytochrome in the photoregulation of terpenoid synthesis in thyme seedlings. Plant Cell Physiol 32:603–607

    CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Yamaura T, Tanaka S, Tabata M (1992) Localization of the biosynthesis and accumulation of monoterpenoids in glandular trichomes of thyme. Planta Med 58:153–158

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

Download references

Acknowledgments

This research was funded by the Miss E.L. Hellaby Indigenous Grasslands Research Trust. We thank the Snow family for their assistance in the field and the Central Otago landowners and businesses who gave permission to carry out research on their land: Sam Leask, Chard Farm Winery, AJ Hackett Bungy New Zealand. We also thank Dr Nigel Perry, Dr Kenneth Keefover-Ring and Catherine Sansom for technical advice and suggestions.

Author information

Authors and Affiliations

  1. Department of Botany, University of Otago, Dunedin, 9054, New Zealand

    J. A. Nielsen & K. J. M. Dickinson

  2. Department of Information Science, University of Otago, Dunedin, 9054, New Zealand

    P. A. Whigham

  3. Department of Chemistry, University of Otago, Dunedin, 9054, New Zealand

    R. D. Frew

  4. Division of Biological Sciences, University of Montana, Missoula, MT, 59801, USA

    R. M. Callaway

  5. 784 Birdie View Point, Sanibel, FL, 33957, USA

    J. A. Nielsen

Authors
  1. J. A. Nielsen
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

  2. P. A. Whigham
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

  3. R. D. Frew
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

  4. R. M. Callaway
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

  5. K. J. M. Dickinson
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

Corresponding author

Correspondence to J. A. Nielsen.

Additional information

Handling Editor: Kerstin Reifenrath.

Electronic supplementary material:

Rights and permissions

Reprints and permissions

About this article

Cite this article

Nielsen, J.A., Whigham, P.A., Frew, R.D. et al. Invasion essentials: does secondary chemistry plasticity contribute to the invasiveness of Thymus vulgaris L.?. Chemoecology 24, 15–27 (2014). https://doi.org/10.1007/s00049-013-0142-1

Download citation

  • Received:

  • Accepted:

  • Published:

  • Issue Date:

  • DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/s00049-013-0142-1

Keywords

Search

Navigation