Abstract
Three popular assertions have hindered the promotion of an empiricist approach to language acquisition: (a) that Brown and Hanlon (1970) claimed to offer data that parents do not reinforce their children’s grammatically; (b) that Brown and Hanlon also claimed to offer data that parents do not provide negative evidence (i.e., corrective feedback) for ungrammaticality; and (c) that Gold (1967) claimed to offer a formal proof showing that, without negative evidence, a child cannot acquire a language solely from environmental input. In this paper I offer introductory comments on the nature-nurture distinction (including interactionism, and the nativists’ claim to have found a gene for language). Next I debunk the three aforementioned assertions by arguing that the authors (Brown & Hanlon; Gold) never made the claims attributed to them; review evidence on the role of reinforcement and corrective feedback in language acquisition; and offer some concluding comments.
Similar content being viewed by others
References
Ahearn, W. H., Clark, K. M., & MacDonald, R. P. F. (2007). Assessing and treating vocal stereotypy in children with autism. Journal of Applied Behavior Analysis, 40, 263–275.
Alessi, G. (1987). Generative strategies and teaching for generalization. The Analysis of Verbal Behavior, 5, 15–27.
Anastasi, A. (1958). ‘Heredity, environment, and the question how?’ Psychological Review, 65, 197–208.
Bates, E., Elman, J., Johnson, M., Karmiloff-Smith, A., Parisi, D., & Plunkett, K. (1998). Innateness and emergentism. In W. Bechtel & G. Graham (Eds.), A companion to cognitive science (pp. 590–601). Oxford: Basil Blackwell.
Becker, J. A. (1988). The success of parents indirect techniques for teaching their pre-schoolers pragmatic skills’. First Language, 8, 173–182.
Bennett, C. W., & Ling, D. (1972). Teaching a complex verbal response to a hearing-impaired girl. Journal of Applied Behavior Analysis, 5, 321–327.
Bloom, L. (1991). Language development from two to three. Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press.
Bohannon, J. N., MacWhinney, B., & Snow, C. E. (1990). No negative evidence revisited: Beyond learnability, or, who has to prove what to whom? Developmental Psychology, 26, 221–226.
Bohannon, J. N., & Stanowicz, L. (1988). The issue of negative evidence: Adult responses to childrens language errors’. Developmental Psychology, 24, 684–689.
Brown, R. (1973). A first language: The early stages. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press.
Brown, R., & Bellugi, U. (1964). Three processes in the childs acquisition of syntax’. Harvard Educational Review, 34, 133–151.
Brown, R., & Hanlon, C. (1970). Derivational complexity and order of acquisition in child speech. In J. R. Hayes (Ed.), Cognition and the development of language (pp. 11–53). New York: Wiley.
Bruner, J. (1983). Child’s talk: Learning to use language. New York: Norton.
Calvin, W. H., & Bickerton, D. (2000/2001). Lingua ex machina: Reconciling Darwin and Chomsky with the human brain. Cambridge, MA: Bradford Books.
Carmichael, L. (1925). Heredity and environment: Are they antithetical? Journal of Abnormal and Social Psychology, 20, 245–260.
Carroll, R. A., & Klatt, K. P. (2008). Using stimulus-stimulus pairing and direct reinforcement to teach vocal behavior to young children with autism. The Analysis of Verbal Behavior, 24, 135–146.
Cazden, C. B. (1965). Environmental assistance to the child’s acquisition of grammar. Unpublished doctoral dissertation, Harvard University, Cambridge MA.
Charlop, M. H., Schreibman, L., & Thibodeau, M. G. (1985). Increasing spontaneous verbal responding in autistic children using a time delay procedure. Journal of Applied Behavior Analysis, 18, 155–166.
Chase, P. N., Ellenwood, D. W., & Madden, G. (2008). A behavior analytic analogue of learning to use synonyms, syntax, and parts of speech. The Analysis of Verbal Behavior, 24, 31–54.
Chomsky, N. (1965). Aspects of the theory of syntax. Cambridge, MA: MIT Press.
Chomsky, N. (1980). Rules and representations. New York: Columbia University Press.
Chomsky, N. (1981). Lectures on government and binding. Dordrecht: Foris.
Chomsky, N. (2005). Three factors in language design. Linguistic Inquiry, 36, 1–22.
Chouinard, M. M., & Clark, E. V. (2003). Adult reformation of child errors as negative evidence. Journal of Child Language, 30, 637–669.
Clark, A. S. (2001). Unsupervised language acquisition: Theory and practice (Doctoral dissertation). Retrieved from http://www.issco.unige.ch/staff/clark/thesis.pdf.
Clark, H. B., & Sherman, J. A. (1975). Teaching generative use of sentence answers to three forms of questions. Journal of Applied Behavior Analysis, 8, 321–330.
Cohen, P. (1998). Excited researchers think they have found a gene for language. New Scientist, 2119, 77.
Cook, V. J. (1988). Chomsky’s universal grammar: An introduction. Oxford, UK: Blackwell.
Cowie, F. (1999). What’s within? Nativism reconsidered. Oxford, UK: Oxford University Press.
Crain, S. (1991). Language acquisition in the absence of experience. Behavioral and Brain Sciences, 14, 597–650.
Crain, S., & Thornton, R. (1998). Investigations in universal grammar: A guide to experiments on the acquisition of syntax and semantics. Cambridge, MA: MIT Press.
Demetras, M. J., Post, K. N., & Snow, C. E., (1986). Feedback to first language learners: The role of repetitions and clarification questions. Journal of Child Language, 13, 275–292.
Demopoulos, W. (1989). On applying learn-ability theory to the rationalism-empiricism controversy. In R. Matthews & W. Demopoulos (Eds.), Learnability and linguistic theory (pp. 77–88). Dordrecht: Kluwer.
Elman, J. L., Bates, E. A., Johnson, M. H., Karmiloff-Smith, A., Parisi, D., & Plunkett, K. (1996). Rethinking innateness: A connectionist perspective on development. Cambridge, MA: MIT Press.
Falcomata, T. S., Roane, H. S., Hovanetz, A. N., & Kettering, T. L. (2004). An evaluation of response cost in the treatment of inappropriate vocalizations maintained by automatic reinforcement. Journal of Applied Behavior Analysis, 37, 8387.
Farrar, M. J. (1990). Discourse and the acquisition of grammatical morphemes. Journal of Child Language, 17, 607–624.
Farrar, M. J. (1992). Negative evidence and grammatical morpheme acquisition. Developmental Psychology, 28, 90–98.
Fisher, S. E., Vargha-Khadem, F., Watkins, K. E., Monaco, A. P., & Pembrey, M. E. (1998). Localisation of a gene implicated in a severe speech and language disorder. Nature Genetics, 18, 168–170.
Fitch, W. T., Hauser, M. D., & Chomsky, N. (2005). The evolution of the language faculty: Clarifications and implications. Cognition, 97, 179–210.
Fodor, J. A. (1983). The modularity ofmind. Cambridge, mA: MIT Press.
Galton, F. (1875). English men of science: Their nature and nurture. New York: Appleton.
Galton, F. (1907). Inquiries into human faculty and its development. New York: Dutton. (Original work published 1883)
Garcia, E. (1974). The training and generalization of a conversational speech form in nonverbal retardates. Journal of Applied Behavior Analysis, 7, 137–149.
Garcia, E. E., & Batista-Wallace, M. (1977). Parental training of the plural morpheme in normal toddlers. Journal of Applied Behavior Analysis, 10, 505.
Garcia, E., Guess, D., & Byrnes, J. (1973). Development of syntax in a retarded girl using procedures of imitation, reinforcement, and modeling. Journal of Applied Behavior Analysis, 6, 299–310.
Gleitman, L. R., & Gleitman, H. (1986). Language. In H. Gleitman (Ed.), Psychology (2nd ed., pp. 295–334). New York: Norton.
Goddard, H. H. (1920). Human efficiency and levels of intelligence. Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press.
Gold, E. M. (1964). Language identification in the limit. Retrieved from http://stinet.dtic.mil/
Gold, E. M. (1967). Language identification in the limit. Information and Control, 10, 447–474.
Goldstein, H. (1984). Effects of modeling and corrected practice on generative language learning of preschool children. Journal of Speech and Hearing Disorders, 49, 389–398.
Gopnik, M. (1990). Feature-blind grammar and dysphasia. Nature, 344, 715.
Gopnik, M., & Crago, M. B. (1991). Familial aggregation of a developmental language disorder. Cognition, 39, 1–50.
Gordon, P. (1990). Learnability and feedback. Developmental Psychology, 26, 217–220.
Gottlieb, G. (1970). Conceptions of prenatal behavior. In L. R. Aronson, E. Tobach, D. S. Lehrman, & J. S. Rosenblatt (Eds.), Development and evolution of behavior: Essays in memory of T. C. Schneirla (pp. 111–137). San Francisco: Freeman.
Gottlieb, G. (1976). Conceptions of prenatal development: Behavioral embryology. Psychological Review, 83, 215–234.
Gottlieb, G. (1997). Synthesizing nature-nurture: Prenatal roots of instinctive behavior. Mahwah, NJ: Erlbaum.
Gottlieb, G. (1998). Normally occurring environmental and behavioral influences on gene activity: From central dogma to probabilistic epigenesis. Psychological Review, 105, 792–802.
Greer, R. D., & Yuan, L. (2008). How kids learn to say the darnedest things: The effect of multiple exemplar instruction on the emergence of novel verb usage. The Analysis of Verbal Behavior, 24, 103–121.
Griffiths, P., & Gray, R. (1994). Developmental systems and evolutionary explanation. Journal ofPhilosophy, 91, 277–304.
Guess, D., Sailor, W., Rutherford, G., & Baer, D. M. (1968). An experimental analysis of linguistic development: The productive use of the plural morpheme. Journal of Applied Behavior Analysis, 1, 297–306.
Hart, B. M., & Risley, T. R. (1968). Establishing use of descriptive adjectives in the spontaneous speech of disadvantaged preschool children. Journal of Applied Behavior Analysis, 1, 109–120.
Hart, B., & Risley, T. R. (1974). Using preschool materials to modify the language of disadvantaged children. Journal of Applied Behavior Analysis, 7, 243–256.
Hart, B., & Risley, T. R. (1975). Incidental teaching of language in the preschool. Journal of Applied Behavior Analysis, 8, 411–420.
Hernandez, E., Hanley, G. P., & Ingvarsson, E. T. (2007). A preliminary evaluation of the emergence of novel mand forms. Journal of Applied Behavior Analysis, 40, 137–156.
Hester, P., & Hendrickson, J. (1977). Training functional expressive language: The acquisition and generalization of five-element syntactic responses. Journal of Applied Behavior Analysis, 10, 316.
Heward, W. L., & Eachus, H. T. (1979). Acquisition of adjectives and adverbs in sentences written by hearing impaired and aphasic children. Journal of Applied Behavior Analysis, 12, 391–400.
Hirsh-Pasek, K., Treiman, R., & Schneiderman, M. (1984). Brown and Hanlon revisited: Mothers sensitivity to ungrammatical forms’. Journal of Child Language, 11, 81–88.
Hoff, E. (2005). Language development (3rd ed.). Belmont, CA: Wadsworth.
Hurst, J. A., Baraitser, M., Auger, E., Graham, F., & Norell, S. (1990). An extended family with a dominantly inherited speech disorder. Developmental Medicine and Child Neurology, 32, 347–355.
Ingold, T. (2001). From complementarity to obviation: On dissolving the boundaries between social and biological anthropology, archaeology, and psychology. In S. Oyama, P. E. Griffiths, & R. D. Gray (Eds.), Cycles of contingency: Developmental systems and evolution (pp. 255–279). Cambridge, MA: Bradford Books.
Johnson, K. (2004). Golds theorem and cognitive science’. Philosophy of Science, 71, 571–592.
Johnston, T. D. (1987). The persistence of dichotomies in the study of behavioral development. Developmental Review, 7, 149–172.
Johnston, T. D. (1988). Developmental explanation and the ontogeny of birdsong: Nature/nurture redux. Behavioral and Brain Sciences, 11, 617–663.
Johnston, T. D. (2002). Genes, interactions, and the development of behavior. Psychological Review, 109, 26–34.
Karmiloff-Smith, A. (2005). Batess emergentist theory and its relevance to understanding genotype/phenotype relations’. In M. Tomasello & D. I. Slobin (Eds.), Beyond nature-nurture: Essays in honor of Elizabeth Bates (pp. 219–236). Mahwah, NJ: Erlbaum.
Kuo, Z.-Y. (1921). Giving up instincts in psychology. Journal of Philosophy, 18, 645–664.
Lai, C. S. L., Fisher, S. E., Hurst, J. A., Vargha-Khadem, F., & Monaco, A. P. (2001). A forkhead-domain gene is mutated in a severe speech and language disorder. Nature, 413, 519–523.
Lehrman, D. S. (1953). A critique of Konrad Lorenzs theory of instinctive behavior’. Quarterly Review of Biology, 28, 337–363.
Lieberman, P. (2006). Toward an evolutionary biology of language. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press.
Lutzker, J. R., & Sherman, J. A. (1974). Producing generative sentence usage by imitation and reinforcement procedures. Journal of Applied Behavior Analysis, 7, 447–460.
Marchman, V., & Thal, D. (2005). Words and grammar. In M. Tomasello & D. I. Slobin (Eds.), Beyond nature-nurture: Essays in honor of Elizabeth Bates (pp. 139–164). Mahwah, NJ: Erlbaum.
Martin, J. A. (1975). Generalizing the use of descriptive adjectives through modeling. Journal of Applied Behavior Analysis, 8, 203–209.
Matthews, R. J. (1989). Introduction: Learnability and linguistic theory. In R. J. Matthews & W. Demopoulos (Eds.), Learnability and linguistic theory (pp. 117). Dordrecht: Kluwer.
McLaughlin, S. (1998). Introduction to language development. San Diego, CA: Singular.
Miguel, C. F., Carr, J. E., & Michael, J. (2001/2002). The effects of a stimulus-stimulus pairing procedure on the vocal behavior of children diagnosed with autism. The Analysis of Verbal Behavior, 18, 3–13.
Moerk, E. L. (1983). The mother of Eve — As a first language teacher. Norwood, NJ: Ablex.
Moerk, E. L. (1990). Three-term contingency patterns in mother-child verbal interactions during first-language acquisition. Journal of the Experimental Analysis of Behavior, 54, 293–305.
Moerk, E. L. (1991). Positive evidence for negative evidence. First Language, 11, 219–251.
Moerk, E. L. (2000). The guided acquisition of first language skills. Stamford, CT: Ablex.
Mook, D. G. (1989). The myth of external validity. In L. W. Poon, D. C. Rubin, & B. A. Wilson (Eds.), Everyday cognition in adulthood and late life (pp. 25–43). Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press.
Moore, D. S. (2001). The dependent gene: The fallacy of nature vs. nurture. New York: Henry Holt.
Morgan, J. L., & Travis, L. L. (1989). Limits on negative information in language input. Journal of Child Language, 16, 531–552.
Novak, G. (1996). Developmental psychology: Dynamical systems and behavior analysis. Reno, NV: Context Press.
Novak, G., & Pelaez, M. (2004). Child and adolescent development: A behavioral systems approach. Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage.
Osherson, D. N., Stob, M., & Weinstein, S. (1989). Learning theory and natural language. In R. Matthews & W. Demopoulos (Eds.), Learnability and linguistic theory (pp. 19–50). Dordrecht: Kluwer.
Oyama, S. (1985). The ontogeny of information: Developmental systems and evolution. Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press.
Oyama, S. (2001). Terms in tension: What do you do when all the good words are taken? In S. Oyama, P. E. Griffiths, & R. D. Gray (Eds.), Cycles of contingency: Developmental systems and evolution (pp. 177–193). Cambridge, MA: Bradford Books.
Oyama, S., Griffiths, P. E., & Gray, R. D. (2001). Introduction: What is developmental systems theory? In S. Oyama, P. E. Griffiths, & R. D. Gray (Eds.), Cycles of contingency: Developmental systems and evolution (pp. 1–11). Cambridge, MA: Bradford Books.
Penner, S. G. (1987). Parental responses to grammatical and ungrammatical child utterances. Child Development, 58, 376–384.
Pinker, S. (1994). The language instinct. New York: Morrow.
Pinker, S. (1995). Language acquisition. In D. Osherson, L. R. Gleitman, & M. Liberman (Eds.), An invitation to cognitive science: Vol. 1. Language (2nd ed., pp. 135–182). Cambridge, MA: MIT Press.
Pinker, S. (2001). Talk of genetics and vice versa. Nature, 413, 465–466.
Plomin, R. (1994). Genetics and experience: The interplay between nature and nurture. Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage.
Pullum, G. K., & Scholz, B. C. (2003). Linguistic models. In M. T. Banich & M. Mack (Eds.), Mind, brain, and language: Multidisciplinary perspectives (pp. 113–141). Mahwah, NJ: Erlbaum.
Putnam, H. (1983). What is innate and why: Comments on the debate. In M. Pattelli-Palmarini (Ed.), Language and learning: The debate between Jean Piaget and Noam Chomsky (pp. 287–309). London: Routledge and Kegan Paul.
Rheingold, H. L., Gewirtz, J. L., & Ross, H. W. (1959). Social conditioning of vocalizations in the infant. Journal of Comparative and Physiological Psychology, 52, 68–73.
Rutter, M. (1987). Developmental psychiatry. Washington, DC: American Psychiatric Association.
Sailor, W. (1971). Reinforcement and generalization of productive plural allomorphs in two retarded children. Journal of Applied Behavior Analysis, 4, 305–310.
Salzinger, K. (1994). The LAD was a lady, or the mother of all language learning: Review of Moerks First language: Taught and learned’. Journal of the Experimental Analysis of Behavior, 62, 323–329.
Saxton, M. (1992). Negative evidence versus negative feedback: A critical review. Child Language Seminar, University of Glasgow.
Saxton, M. (1993). Does negative input work? First Language, 13, 409–411.
Scherer, N. J., & Olswang, L. B. (1984). Role of mothers expansions in stimulating childrens language production’. Journal of Speech and Hearing Research, 27, 387–396.
Schneirla, T. C. (1956). ‘Interrelationships of the innate and the acquired in instinctive behavior’. In P.-P. Grasse (Ed.), L’Instinct dans le comportement des animaux et de l’homme (pp. 387–452). Paris: Masson.
Scholz, B. C. (2004). Golds theorems and the logical problem of language acquisition’. Journal of Child Language, 31, 959–961.
Schumaker, J., & Sherman, J. A. (1970). Training generative usage by imitation and reinforcement procedures. Journal of Applied Behavior Analysis, 3, 273–287.
Secan, K. E., Egel, A. L., & Tilley, C. S. (1989). Acquisition, generalization, and maintenance of question-answering skills in autistic children. Journal of Applied Behavior Analysis, 22, 181–196.
Siegel, G. M., Lenske, J., & Broen, P. (1969). Suppression of normal speech disfluencies through response cost. Journal of Applied Behavior Analysis, 2, 265–276.
Sigelman, C. K., & Rider, E. A. (2005). Lifespan human development. Belmont, CA: Wadsworth.
Silvestri, S., Davies-Lackey, A., Twyman, J., & D. C. (in preparation). The role of automatic reinforcement in the acquisition of autoclitic frames.
Skinner, B. F. (1953). Science and human behavior. New York: MacMillan.
Skinner, B. F. (1957). Verbal behavior. Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Prentice Hall.
Slobin, D. I. (1968). Imitation and grammatical development in children. In N. S. Endler, L. R. Boulter, & H. Osser (Eds.), Contemporary issues in developmental psychology (pp. 283–297). New York: Academic Press.
Smith, R., Michael, J., & Sundberg, M. L. (1996). Automatic reinforcement and automatic punishment in infant vocal behavior. The Analysis of Verbal Behavior, 13, 39–48.
Stevens-Long, J., & Rasmussen, M. (1974). The acquisition of simple and compound sentence structure in an autistic child. Journal of Applied Behavior Analysis, 7, 473–479.
Strapp, C. M., Bleakney, D. M., Helmick, A. L., & Tonkovich, H. M. (2008). Developmental differences in the effects of negative and positive evidence. First Language, 28, 35–53.
Strapp, C. M., & Federico, A. (2000). Imitations and repetitions: What do children say following recasts? First Language, 20, 273–290.
Sundberg, M. L. (2007). Verbal behavior. In J. O. Cooper, T. E. Heron, & W. L. Heward, (Eds.), Applied behavior analysis (2nd ed., pp. 526–547). Upper Saddle River, NJ: Merrill/Prentice Hall.
Sundberg, M. L., Michael, J., Partington, J. W., & Sundberg, C. A. (1996). The role of automatic reinforcement in early language acquisition. The Analysis of Verbal Behavior, 13, 21–37.
Terman, L. W. (1922). Were we born that way? World’s Work, 44, 660.
Thelen, E., & Smith, L. B. (1994). A dynamical systems approach to the development of cognition and action. Cambridge, MA: Bradford Books.
Thelen, E., & Ulrich, B. D. (1991). Hidden skills: A dynamic systems analysis of treadmill stepping during the first year. Monographs of the Society for Research in Child Development, 56 (1, Serial No. 223).
Trask, R. L. (1993). A dictionary of grammatical terms in linguistics. New York: Routledge.
Valleley, R. J., Shriver, M. D., & Rozema, S. (2005). Using brief experimental assessment of reading interventions for identification and treatment of a vocal habit. Journal of Applied Behavior Analysis, 38, 129–133.
Vargha-Khadem, F., Watkins, K., Alcock, K., Fletcher, P., & Passingham, R. (1995). Praxic and nonverbal cognitive deficits in a large family with a genetically transmitted speech and language disorder. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America, 92, 930–933.
Vaughan, M. E., & Michael, J. L. (1982). Automatic reinforcement: An important but ignored concept. Behaviorism, 10, 217–227.
Weisberg, P. (1963). Social and nonsocial conditioning of infant vocalizations. Child Development, 55, 377–388.
West, M. J., & King, A. P. (1987). Settling nature and nurture into an ontogenetic niche. Developmental Psychobiology, 20, 549–562.
Wheeler, A. M., & Sulzer, B. (1970). Operant training and generalization of a verbal response form in a speech-deficient child. Journal of Applied Behavior Analysis, 3, 139–147.
Whitehurst, G. J., & Valdez-Menchaca, M. C. (1988). What is the role of reinforcement in early language acquisition? Child Development, 59, 430–440.
Wiggam, A. E. (1923). The new decalogue of science. Indianapolis, IN: Bobbs-Merrill.
Wright, A. N. (2006). The role of modeling and automatic reinforcement in the construction of the passive voice. The Analysis of Verbal Behavior, 22, 153–169.
Wulfert, E., & Hayes, S. C. (1988). The transfer of conditional sequencing through conditional equivalence classes. Journal of the Experimental Analysis of Behavior, 50, 125–144.
Yoon, S. (1998). Effects of an adult’s vocal sound paired with a reinforcing event on the subsequent acquisition of mand functions (Doctoral dissertation). Available from ProQuest Dissertations and Theses database. (UMI No. TX 4-872-654).
Yoon, S., & Bennett, G. M. (2000). Effects of a stimulus-stimulus pairing procedure on conditioning vocal sounds as reinforcers. The Analysis of Verbal Behavior, 17, 7588.
Zukow, P. G. (1990). Socio-perceptual bases for the emergence of language: An alternative to innatist approaches. Developmental Psychobiology, 23, 705–726.
Author information
Authors and Affiliations
Corresponding author
Rights and permissions
About this article
Cite this article
Schoneberger, T. Three Myths from the Language Acquisition Literature. Analysis Verbal Behav 26, 107–131 (2010). https://doi.org/10.1007/BF03393086
Published:
Issue Date:
DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/BF03393086