Skip to main content
Log in

“The little spots allow’d them”: The archaeological study of African-American yards

  • Article
  • Published:
Historical Archaeology Aims and scope Submit manuscript

Abstract

Yards, like buildings and more portable artifacts, are significant expressions of culture. Yet within African-American archaeology, yards have not been the focus of serious discussions addressing questions of work and leisure activities, community interactions, aesthetics, and culture change. The authors review archaeological, ethnographic, and historical evidence of yards associated with New World slave quarters and present a framework for analysis. Results of recent excavations at a slave quarter at Poplar Forest in central Virginia, occupied from ca. 1790 to 1812, are presented within the context of this framework. The archaeological study of yard spaces provides significant information about cultural meanings and uses of space.

This is a preview of subscription content, log in via an institution to check access.

Access this article

Price excludes VAT (USA)
Tax calculation will be finalised during checkout.

Instant access to the full article PDF.

Similar content being viewed by others

References

  • Adams, William H. (editor) 1987 Historical Archaeology of Plantations at Kings Bay, Camden County, Georgia. Report to Naval Submarine Base, U.S. Navy from Department of Anthropology, University of Florida, Gainesville.

  • Agbe-Davies, Anna 1994 Preliminary Findings from the Rich Neck Slave Quarter Excavations. Paper presented at the Annual Meeting of the Council for Northeast Historical Archaeology, Williamsburg, VA.

  • Armstrong, Douglas V. 1990 The Old Village and the Great House: An Archaeological and Historical Examination of Drax Hall Plantation at St. Ann’s Bay, Jamaica. University of Illinois Press, Urbana.

    Google Scholar 

  • Ball, Charles 1837 Slavery in the United States: A Narrative of the Life and Adventures of Charles Ball, a Black Man. J. S. Taylor, New York, NY.

    Google Scholar 

  • Barclay, Alexander 1826 A Practical View of the Present State of Slavery in the West Indies. Smith Elder, & Co., London, England.

    Google Scholar 

  • Bayley, F. W. N. 1833 Four Years Residence in the West Indies. William Kidd, London, England.

    Google Scholar 

  • Beaudry, Mary C. 1993 Public Aesthetics versus Personal Experience: Worker Health and Well-Being in 19th-century Lowell, Massachusetts. Historical Archaeology 27(2):90–105.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Beckford, William 1788 Remarks upon the Situation of Negroes in Jamaica. London, England.

    Google Scholar 

  • 1790 A Descriptive Account of the Island of Jamaica. T. J. Egerton, London, England.

    Google Scholar 

  • Beckles, Hilary M. 1989 Natural Rebels, A Social History of Enslaved Black Women in Barbados. Rutgers University Press, New Brunswick, NJ.

    Google Scholar 

  • Betts, Edwin M. 1944 Thomas Jefferson’s Garden Book. American Philosophical Society, Philadelphia, PA.

    Google Scholar 

  • Brooks, Alasdair M. 1996 Analysis of Ceramics and Glass from the Quarter Site. Manuscript, Department of Archaeology, Thomas Jefferson’s Poplar Forest, Forest, VA.

    Google Scholar 

  • Caillie, Rene 1968 Travels through Central Africa to Timbuctoo and Across the great Desert, To Morocco, performed in the years 1824–1828, Vol. 1. Reprint of 1830 edition, Frank Cass, London, England.

  • Clapperton, Hugh 1829 Journal of a Second Expedition into the Interior of Africa, from the Bight of Benin to Soccatoo. John Murray, London, England.

    Book  Google Scholar 

  • Columbian Magazine or Monthly Miscellany 1797 Characteristic traits of the Creolian and African Negroes in this Island, etc., etc. Columbian Magazine or Monthly Miscellany, April.

  • Council of Barbados 1789 Replies to queries 6, 15, 22, 23, 24 and 25 of the Report of the Lords of the committee of Council … concerning the present state of the trade to Africa … and the effects and consequences of this trade … in Africa and in the West Indies, Part 3. Parliamentary Papers, 26. London, England.

  • Crass, David Colin, and Mark J. Brooks (editors) 1995 Cotton and Black Draught: Consumer Behavior on a Postbellum Farm. South Carolina Institute of Archaeology and Anthropology, University of South Carolina, Savannah River Archaeological Research Papers 5. Columbia.

  • Cummings, Linda Scott 1994 Diet and Prehistoric Landscape During the Nineteenth and Early Twentieth Centuries at Harpers Ferry, West Virginia: A View from the Old Master Armorer’s Complex. Historical Archaeology 28(4):94–105.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Davenport, William H. 1961 The Family System in Jamaica. Social and Economic Studies 10:420–454.

    Google Scholar 

  • Deetz, James 1996 In Small Things Forgotten: An Archaeology of Early American Life. Anchor Books, New York, NY.

    Google Scholar 

  • Dickson, William 1789 Letters on Slavery. J. Phillips, London, England. Reprinted 1970, Negro University Press, Westport, CT.

    Google Scholar 

  • Edwards, Bryan 1793 The History, Civil and Commercial, of the British Colonies in the West Indies. J. Stockdale, London, England.

    Google Scholar 

  • Fairbanks, Charles 1976 Spaniards, Planters, Ships, and Slaves: Historical Archaeology on Florida and Georgia. Archaeology 29:165–172.

    Google Scholar 

  • 1977 Backyard Archaeology as Research Strategy. The Conference of Historic Site Archaeology Papers, 11. Columbia, SC.

  • Farish, Hunter Dickenson (editor) 1957 Journal and Letters of Philip Vickers Fithian 1773–1774: A Plantation Tutor of the Old Dominion. University Press of Virginia, Charlottesville.

    Google Scholar 

  • Fesler, Garrett 1997a Expressions of Power and Gender at an Early 18th-Century African-American Chesapeake Slave Quarter. Paper presented at The Society for Historical Archaeology Conference on Historical and Underwater Archaeology, Corpus Christi, TX.

  • 1997b Landscapes of Control and Autonomy: The Spatial Contestation of the Utopia Slave Quarter. Manuscript, Department of Archaeology, Thomas Jefferson’s Poplar Forest, Forest, VA.

  • Fischer, Lisa 1996 Report on the Chemical Analysis of Soils at the Poplar Forest Quarter Site. Manuscript, Department of Archaeology, Thomas Jefferson’s Poplar Forest, Forest, VA.

    Google Scholar 

  • Gardner, W. J. 1873 A History of Jamaica. F. Cass, London, England.

    Google Scholar 

  • Gibb, James G., and Julia A. King 1991 Gender, Activity Areas, and Homelots in the 17th-century Chesapeake Region. Historical Archaeology 25(4): 109–131.

    Google Scholar 

  • Gleason, Kathryn L. 1994 To Bound and to Cultivate: An Introduction to the Archaeology of Gardens and Fields. In The Archaeology of Garden and Field, Naomi Miller and Kathryn Gleason, editors, pp. 1–24. University of Pennsylvania Press, Philadelphia.

    Google Scholar 

  • Gundaker, Grey 1993 Tradition and Innovation in African-American Yards. African Arts 26:58–71.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Hall, Edward 1966 The Hidden Dimension. Doubleday, Garden City, NY.

    Google Scholar 

  • Handler, Jerome S, and Frederick W. Lange 1978 Plantation Slavery in Barbados: An Archaeological and Historical Investigation. Harvard University Press, Cambridge, MA.

    Book  Google Scholar 

  • Hawke, David (editor) 1971 The Cotton Kingdom: A Selection. Bobbs-Merrill, Indianapolis, IN.

    Google Scholar 

  • Heath, Barbara J. 1997 Slavery and Consumerism: A Case Study from Central Virginia. African-American Archaeology 19:1–8.

    Google Scholar 

  • 1999 Hidden Lives: The Archaeology of Slave Life at Thomas Jefferson’s Poplar Forest. University Press of Virginia, Charlottesville.

    Google Scholar 

  • Hundley, Daniel R. 1973 Social Relations in Our Southern States. Reprint of 1860 edition, Arno Press, New York, NY.

  • Jones-Jackson, Patricia 1987 When Roots Die, Endangered Traditions on the Sea Islands. University of Georgia Press, Athens.

    Google Scholar 

  • Kelly, James 1838 Jamaica in 1831. James Wilson, Belfast, Northern Ireland.

    Google Scholar 

  • Kelso William M., Douglas W. Sanford, Dinah Crader Johnson, Sondy Sanford, and Anna Gruber 1984 A Report on the Archaeological Excavations at Monticello, Charlottesville, VA, 1982–1983. Manuscript, Thomas Jefferson Memorial Foundation, Charlottesville, VA.

    Google Scholar 

  • Kelso, William M., Douglas W. Sanford, Anna Gruber, Dinah Crader Johnson, and Ann Morgan Smart 1985 Monticello Black History/Craftlife Archaeology Project 1984–85 Progress Report. Manuscript, Thomas Jefferson Memorial Foundation, Charlottesville, VA.

    Google Scholar 

  • Kimber, Edward 1907 Observations in Several Voyages and Travels in America. William and Mary Quarterly, 1 st Series, 14:1–17, 15:215–225. Reprint of 1746 edition.

  • King, Julia A. 1988 A Comparative Midden Analysis of a Household and Inn in St. Mary’s City, Maryland. Historical Archaeology 22(2): 17–39.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • King, Julia A., and Henry M. Miller 1987 The View from the Midden: An Analysis of Midden Distribution and Composition at the van Sweringen Site, St. Mary’s City, Maryland. Historical Archaeology 21(2):37–59.

    Google Scholar 

  • Lee, Harper 1974 To Kill a Mockingbird. Pan Books, London, England.

    Google Scholar 

  • Livingstone, William Pringle 1899 Black Jamaica: A Study of Evolution. S. Law, Marstan, London, England.

    Google Scholar 

  • MacGaffey, Wyatt 1986 Religion and Society in Central Africa: The BaKongo of Lower Zaire. University of Chicago Press, Chicago, IL.

    Google Scholar 

  • Martin, Ann Smart 1993 Buying into the World of Goods: Eighteenth-Century Consumerism and the Retail Trade from London to the Virginia Frontier. Ph.D. dissertation, Department of History, College of William and Mary, Williamsburg, VA. University Microfilms International, Ann Arbor, MI.

    Google Scholar 

  • McDaniel, George W. 1982 Hearth and Home: Preserving a People’s Culture. Temple University Press, Philadelphia, PA.

    Google Scholar 

  • McDonald, Roderick A. 1993 The Economy and Material Culture of Slaves, Goods and Chattels on the Sugar Plantations of Jamaica and Louisiana. Louisiana State University Press, Baton Rouge.

    Google Scholar 

  • McKee, Larry 1997 Summary Report on the 1994 Excavation at Alfred’s Cabin. Manuscript, The Hermitage, Hermitage, TN.

    Google Scholar 

  • McNeill, Hector 1788 Observations on the Treatment of Negroes in the Island of Jamaica. G. G. J. and J. Robinson, London, England.

    Google Scholar 

  • Miller, Naomi F. 1994 Fertilizer and the Indentification and Analysis of Cultivated Soil. In The Archaeology of Garden and Field, Naomi Miller and Kathryn Gleason, editors, pp. 25–43. University of Pennsylvania Press, Philadelphia.

  • Miller, Ronald (editor) 1969 Mungo Park’s Travels in Africa. Dent, London, England.

    Google Scholar 

  • Mintz, Sidney 1974 Caribbean Transformations. Johns Hopkins University Press, Baltimore, MD.

    Google Scholar 

  • Mintz, Sidney, and Douglas Hall 1960 The Origins of the Jamaican Internal Marketing System. Yale University Publications in Anthropology 57. New Haven, CT.

  • Moir, Randall W. 1987 Farmstead Proxemics and Intrasite Patterning. In Pioneer Settlers, Tenant Farmers and Communities: Objectives, Historical Background, and Excavations, Randall W. Moir and David H. Jurney, editors, Archaeology Research Program, Institute for the Study of Earth and Man, Southern Methodist University, Richland Creek Technical Series 4, Dallas, TX.

  • Morgan, Philip 1982 Work and Culture: The Task System and the World of Lowcountry Blacks, 1700–1880. William and Mary Quarterly, 3rd Series, 39(4):563–599.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • 1988 Slave Life in Piedmont Virginia, 1720–1800. In Colonial Chesapeake Society, Lois Green Carr, Philip D. Morgan, and Jean B. Russo, editors, pp. 433–484. University Press of North Carolina, Chapel Hill.

    Google Scholar 

  • Olmsted, Frederick Law 1861 A Journey in the Seaboard Slave States, with Remarks on their Economy. Mason Brothers, New York, NY.

    Google Scholar 

  • Otto, John S. 1980 Race and Class on Antebellum Plantations. In Archaeological Perspectives on Ethnicity in America, Robert L. Schuyler, editor, pp. 3–13. Baywood, Farmingdale, NY.

    Google Scholar 

  • Parry, David 1789 Extract of a letter from Governor Parry to the Right Honourable Lord Sydney, 18 August 1788. Parliamentary Papers, 26:13–24. London, England.

    Google Scholar 

  • Perdue, Charles L. (editor) 1976 Weevils in the Wheat: Interviews with Virginia Ex-Slaves. University Press of Virginia, Charlottesville.

    Google Scholar 

  • Phillippo, James M. 1843 Jamaica: Its Past and Present State. J. Snow, London, England.

    Google Scholar 

  • Pinkard, George 1806 Notes on the West Indies. Longman, Hurst, Rees, and Onme, London, England.

    Google Scholar 

  • Pogue, Dennis J. 1988 Spatial Analysis of the King’s Reach Plantation Homelot, ca. 1690–1715. Historical Archaeology 22(2):40–56.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Pulsipher, Lydia Mihelic 1994 The Landscapes and Ideational Roles of Caribbean Slave Gardens. In The Archaeology of Garden and Field, Naomi Miller and Kathryn Gleason, editors, pp. 202–221. University of Pennsylvania Press, Philadelphia.

    Google Scholar 

  • Rapoport, Amos 1993 Systems of Activities and Systems of Settings. In Domestic Architecture and the Use of Space, an Interdisciplinary Cross-Cultural Study, Susan Kent, editor, pp. 9–20. Cambridge University Press, Cambridge, England.

    Google Scholar 

  • Rawick, George (editor) 1972 Kansas, Kentucky, Maryland, Ohio, Virginia and Tennessee Narratives. Greenwood, Westport, CT.

    Google Scholar 

  • Raymer, Leslie 1996 Macroplant Remains from the Jefferson’s Poplar Forest Slave Quarter: A Study in African-American Subsistence Practices. Report to Thomas Jefferson’s Poplar Forest, Forest, VA, from New South Associates.

  • Riordan, Timothy B. 1988 The Interpretation of 17th-Century Sites through Plow Zone Surface Collections: Examples from St. Mary’s City, Maryland. Historical Archaeology 22(2):2–16.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Rovner, Irwin 1994 Floral History by the Back Door: A Test of Phytolith Analysis in Residential Yards at Harpers Ferry. Historical Archaeology 28(4):37–48.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Russell, William Howard 1863 My Diary North and South. Bradbury and Evans, London, England. Reprinted 1954, Harper, New York, NY.

  • Sarudy, Barbara Wells 1998 Gardens and Gardening in the Chesapeake 1700–1805. Johns Hopkins University Press, Baltimore, MD.

    Google Scholar 

  • Schlotterbeck, John T. 1995 The Internal Economy of Slavery in Rural Piedmont Virginia. In The Slaves’ Economy: Independent Production by Slaves in the Americas, Ira Berlin and Philip D. Morgan, editors, pp. 170–181. Frank Cass, London, England.

    Google Scholar 

  • Silva, James S. 1914 Early Reminiscences of an Old St. Marys Boy now in His 82nd year. Southeast Georgian, Kingsland, GA.

    Google Scholar 

  • Singleton, Theresa A. 1992 Preface to African-American Gardens and Yards in the Rural South, by Richard Westmacott. University of Tennessee Press, Knoxville.

  • Singleton, Theresa A., and Mark D. Bograd 1993 The Archaeology of the African Diaspora in the Americas. Guides to the Archaeological Literature of the Immigrant Experience in America, 2. The Society for Historical Archaeology, California, PA.

    Google Scholar 

  • Spurrier, John 1793 The Practical Farmer. Brynberg and Andrews, Wilmington, DE.

    Google Scholar 

  • Stanton, Lucia 1993 Those Who Labor for My Happiness. In Jeffersonian Legacies, Peter S. Onuf, editor, pp. 147–180. University Press of Virginia, Charlottesville.

    Google Scholar 

  • Stewart, John 1823 A View of the Past and Present State of the Island of Jamaica. Oliver & Boyd, Edinburgh, Scotland.

    Google Scholar 

  • Stowe, Harriet Beecher 1853 A Key to Uncle Tom’s Cabin. John P. Jewett, Boston, MA.

    Google Scholar 

  • Thomas, Brian W., Larry McKee, and Jennifer Bartlett 1995 Summary Report on the 1995 Hermitage Field Quarter Excavation. Manuscript, The Hermitage, Hermitage, TN.

    Google Scholar 

  • Thomas Jefferson’s Poplar Forest 1844- Hutter Farm Journal. Thomas Jefferson’s Poplar 1854 Forest, Forest, VA.

  • Thompson, Mary V. 1993 “Better … Fed than Negroes Generally Are?”: Diet of the Mount Vernon Slaves. Manuscript, Mount Vernon Ladies’ Association, Mount Vernon, VA.

    Google Scholar 

  • Thompson, Robert Farris 1984 Flash of the Spirit, African and Afro-American Art and Philosophy. Vintage Press, New York, NY.

    Google Scholar 

  • 1990 Kongo Influences on African-American Artistic Culture. In Africanisms in American Culture, Joseph E. Holloway, editor, pp. 148–184. Indiana University Press, Bloomington.

    Google Scholar 

  • University of Virginia 1814 Letter from Jeremiah Goodman to Thomas Jefferson, 30 December. University of Virginia Special Collections, Charlottesville.

    Google Scholar 

  • Upton, Dell 1985 White and Black Landscapes in Eighteenth-Century Virginia. Places 2(2):59–72.

    Google Scholar 

  • Vlach, John Michael 1991 By the Work of Their Hands: Studies in Afro-American Folklife. University Press of Virginia, Charlottesville.

    Google Scholar 

  • Ware, Sue Anne 1997 The Sisterhood of Gardens: African-American Women’s Gardens, from the Backwoods to the Cul-de-Sac. In The Influence of Women on the Southern Landscape, Proceedings of the Tenth Conference on Restoring Southern Gardens and Landscapes 1995:154–171. Winston-Salem, NC.

  • Watters, David R. 1994 Mortuary Patterns at the Harney Site Slave Cemetery, Montserrat, in Caribbean Perspective. Historical Archaeology 28(3):56–73.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Welty, Eudora 1971 The Wide Net and Other Stories. Harcourt, Brace, Jovanovich, New York, NY.

    Google Scholar 

  • Westmacott, Richard 1992 African-American Gardens and Yards in the Rural South. University of Tennessee Press, Knoxville.

    Google Scholar 

  • Yentsch, Anne E., and Judson M. Kratzer 1994 Techniques for Excavating and Analyzing Buried Eighteenth-Century Garden Landscapes. In The Archaeology of Garden and Field, Naomi Miller and Kathryn Gleason, editors, pp. 168–201. University of Pennsylvania Press, Philadelphia.

    Google Scholar 

Download references

Author information

Authors and Affiliations

Authors

Rights and permissions

Reprints and permissions

About this article

Check for updates. Verify currency and authenticity via CrossMark

Cite this article

Heath, B.J., Bennett, A. “The little spots allow’d them”: The archaeological study of African-American yards. Hist Arch 34, 38–55 (2000). https://doi.org/10.1007/BF03374312

Download citation

  • Published:

  • Issue Date:

  • DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/BF03374312

Navigation