Skip to main content
SpringerLink
Log in

Significance of gametophyte form in long-distance colonization by tropical, epiphytic ferns

  • Articles
  • Published:
Brittonia Aims and scope Submit manuscript

Abstract

Gametophyte morphology of tropical epiphytic ferns may confer an advantage for establishment on islands. Most tropical, epiphytic ferns belong to five families: Hymenophyllaceae, Grammitidaceae, Vittariaceae, Polypodiaceae, and Elaphoglossaceae. Gametophytes of these families are long-lived and clone-forming. In addition, most Hymenophyllaceae, Grammitidaceae, and Vittariaceae produce dispersible gemmae. Each of these characteristics increases opportunity for outbreeding, and when island floras are statistically compared with floras of adjacent mainlands, island floras are found to be rich in epiphytic species possessing gemmae (Hymenophyllaceae, Grammitidaceae, and Vittariaceae), and depauperate in epiphytic species lacking gemmae (Polypodiaceae and Elaphoglossaceae). We propose that gametophytic gemmae significantly aid long-distance colonization of outbreeding species because gemmae 1) allow gametophytes to exploit available niches through dispersal of gemmae, and through clonal expansion and persistence of the resulting gametophyte, and 2) facilitate sexual reproduction by providing the opportunity for sperm and antheridiogen transfer when gametophytes are distant, and by providing a new source of tissue for antheridia formation.

This is a preview of subscription content, log in via an institution to check access.

Access this article

Log in via an institution

Price excludes VAT (USA)
Tax calculation will be finalised during checkout.

Instant access to the full article PDF.

Institutional subscriptions

Similar content being viewed by others

Literature Cited

  • Atkinson, L. R. &A. G. Stokey. 1964. Comparative morphology of the gametophyte of homosporous ferns. Phytomorphology 14: 51–70.

    Google Scholar 

  • Bell, G. H., P. D. Bostock, P. J. Brownsey, T. C. Chambers, R. J. Chinnock, P. A. Farrant, D. L. Jones, K. U. Kramer, P. M. McCarthy, B. S. Parris &T. M. Spokes. 1998. Ferns and fern allies. Pages 112–165, 183–496.In: A. E. Orchard, editor. Flora of Australia. Ferns, gymnosperms and allied groups. Vol. 48. ABRS/CSIRO Australia, Melbourne.

    Google Scholar 

  • Britton, E. C. &A. Taylor. 1902. The life history ofVittaria lineata. Mem. Torrey Bot. Club 8: 185–220.

    Google Scholar 

  • Brownlie, G. 1962. Geographical relationships of new Zealand fern flora. Pacific Sci. 16: 363–365.

    Google Scholar 

  • — 1969. Ptéridophytes.In: A. Aubréville, editor. Nouvelle-Calédonie et dépendances. No. 3. Muséum National D'Histoire Naturelle, Laboratoire de Phanérogamie, Paris.

    Google Scholar 

  • — 1977. The pteridophyte flora of Fiji. Beiho Nova Hedwigia 55: 1–397.

    Google Scholar 

  • Brownsey, P. J. 2001. New Zealand's pteridophyte flora—plants of ancient lineage but recent arrival? Brittonia 53: 284–303.

    Google Scholar 

  • — &J. C. Smith-Dodsworth. 1989. New Zealand ferns and allied plants. David Bateman. Auckland.

    Google Scholar 

  • Burrows, J. E. 1990. Southern African ferns and fern allies. Frandsen Publishers, Sandton, South Africa.

    Google Scholar 

  • Carlquist, S. 1967. The biota of long-distance dispersal. V. Plant dispersal to Pacific islands. Bull. Torrey Bot. Club 94: 129–162.

    Google Scholar 

  • Chiou, W. &D. R. Farrar. 1997a. Antheridiogen production and responses in Polypodiaceae species. Amer. J. Bot. 84: 633–640.

    Google Scholar 

  • ——. 1997b. Comparative gametophyte morphology of selected species of the family Polypodiaceae. Amer. Fern J. 87: 77–86.

    Google Scholar 

  • — &T. A. Ranker. 1998. Gametophyte morphology and reproductive biology inElaphoglossum. Canad. J. Bot. 76: 1967–1977.

    Google Scholar 

  • Christensen, C. 1943. A revision of the Pteridophyta of Samoa. Bulletin 177. Bernice P. Bishop Museum, Honolulu.

    Google Scholar 

  • Copeland, E. B. 1958. Fern flora of the Philippines. Monograph 6. Vol. 2. National Institute of Science and Technology, Manila.

    Google Scholar 

  • —. 1960a. Fern flora of the Philippines. Monograph 6. Vol. 2. National Institute of Science and Technology, Manila.

    Google Scholar 

  • —. 1960b. Fern flora of the Philippines. Monograph 6. Vol. 3. National Institute of Science and Technology, Manila.

    Google Scholar 

  • Crabbe, J. A., A. C. Jermy &J. T. Mickel. 1975. A new generic sequence for the pteridophyte herbarium. Fern Gaz. 11: 141–162.

    Google Scholar 

  • Dassler, C. L. 1995. Significance of gametophyte form in tropical, epiphytic ferns. Ph.D. dissertation. Iowa State University, Ames.

    Google Scholar 

  • — &D. R. Farrar. 1997. Significance of form in fern gametophytes: clonal, gemmiferous gametophytes ofCallistopteris baueriana (Hymenophyllaceae). Int. J. Pl. Sci. 158: 622–639.

    Google Scholar 

  • DeVol, C. E. 1979. Pteridophyta. Part 2. Pages 1–665.In: H. Li, T. Liu, T. Huang, et al., editors. Flora of Taiwan. Vol. 6. Vascular plants. Ch. II. A checklist of the vascular plants of Taiwan. Epoch Publishing, Taipei.

    Google Scholar 

  • —,S. Daigobo, C. Kuo, H. Li, C. Lu, W. Shieh &T. Yang. 1975. Pteridophyta and Gymnospermae. Vol. 1. Pages 1–562.In: H. Li, T. Liu, T. Huang, et al., editors. Flora of Taiwan. Epoch Publishing, Taipei.

    Google Scholar 

  • Edie, H. H. 1977. Ferns of Hong Kong. Hong Kong University Press, Hong Kong.

    Google Scholar 

  • Emigh, V. D. &D. R. Farrar. 1977. Gemmae: a role in sexual reproduction in the fern genusVittaria. Science 198: 297–298.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Farrar, D. R. 1971. The biology of ferns with asexually reproducing gametophytes in the eastern United States. Ph.D. dissertation. University of Michigan, Ann Arbor.

    Google Scholar 

  • — 1974. Gemmiferous fern gametophytes—Vittariaceae. Amer. J. Bot. 61: 146–155.

    Google Scholar 

  • — 1993a. Vittariaceae Ching—shoestring fern family. Pages 187–189.In: Flora of North America. Vol. 2. Pteridophytes and gymnosperms. Oxford University Press, New York.

    Google Scholar 

  • — 1993b. Hymenophyllaceae Link—filmy fern family. Pages 190–197.In: Flora of North America. Vol. 2. Pteridophytes and gymnosperms. Oxford University Press, New York.

    Google Scholar 

  • Fosberg, F. R. 1948. Derivation of the flora of the Hawaiian Islands.In: E. C. Zimmerman, editor. Insects of Hawaii. Vol. 1. Introduction. University of Hawaii Press, Honolulu.

    Google Scholar 

  • — 1997. Preliminary checklist of the flowering plants and ferns of the Society Islands. D. R. Stoddart & R. B. Gump (eds.). University of California, Berkeley; South Pacific Biological Research Station, Moorea, French Polynesia.

    Google Scholar 

  • Glassman, S. F. 1952. The flora of Ponape. Bernice P. Bishop Mus. Bull. 209: 1–152.

    Google Scholar 

  • Goebel, K. 1888. Morphologische und biologische studien-II. Zur Keimungsgeschichte einiger Farne. Ann. Jard. Bot. Buitenzorg 7: 74–119, pls. X–XIII.

    Google Scholar 

  • Hall, R. 1996. Reconstructing Cenozoic SE Asia. Pages 153–184.In: R. Hall & D. Blundell, editors. Tectonic evolution of southeast Asia. Geographical Society Special Publication No. 106. The Geographic Society, London.

    Google Scholar 

  • Haufler, C. H. &G. J. Gastony. 1978. Antheridiogen and the breeding system in the fern genusBommeria. Canad. J. Bot. 56: 1594–1601.

    Google Scholar 

  • —,D. E. Soltis &P. S. Soltis. 1995. Phylogeny ofPolypodium vulgare complex: insights from chloroplast DNA restriction site data. Syst. Bot. 20: 110–119.

    Google Scholar 

  • Holbrook-Walker, S. G. &R. M. Lloyd. 1973. Reproductive biology and gametophyte morphology of the Hawaiian fern genus,Sadleria (Blechnaceae) relative to habitat diversity and propensity for colonization. J. Linn. Soc., Bot. 67: 157–174.

    Google Scholar 

  • Holttum, R. E. 1954. Ferns of Malaya.In: Flora of Malaya. Vol. 2. Botanic Gardens, Singapore.

    Google Scholar 

  • Hooper, E. A. &C. H. Haufler. 1997. Genetic diversity and breeding system in a group of neotropical epiphytic ferns (Pleopeltis; Polypodiaceae). Amer. J. Bot. 84: 1664–1674.

    Google Scholar 

  • Kimmerer, R. W. &C. C. Young. 1995. The role of slugs in dispersal of the asexual propagules ofDicranum flagellare. Bryologist 98: 149–153.

    Google Scholar 

  • Kramer, K. U. 1978. The pteridophytes of Suriname, an enumeration with keys of the ferns and fern allies. Natuurwetenschap. Stud. Suriname Nederl. Antillen. Utrecht 93: 1–197.

    Google Scholar 

  • Lloyd, R. M. 1974a. Mating systems and genetic load in pioneer and non-pioneer Hawaiian Pteridophyta. J. Linn. Soc., Bot. 69: 23–35.

    Google Scholar 

  • — 1974b. Reproductive biology and evolution in the Pteridophyta. Ann. Missouri Bot. Gard. 61: 318–331.

    Google Scholar 

  • — &E. J. Klekowski, Jr. 1970. Spore germination and viability in Pteridophyta: evolutionary significance of chlorophyllous spores. Biotropica 2: 129–137.

    Google Scholar 

  • Longton, R. E. &R. M. Schuster. 1983. Reproductive biology. Pages 386–462.In: R. M. Schuster, editor. New manual of bryology. Vol. 1. Hattori Botanical Laboratory, Nichinan, Japan.

    Google Scholar 

  • Lovis, J. D. 1959. The geographical affinities of the New Zealand pteridophyte flora. Brit. Fern Gaz. 9: 16–23.

    Google Scholar 

  • Mickel, J. T. 1992. Pteridophytes. Vol. 17In: R. McVaugh. Flora Novo-Galiciana, a descriptive account of the vascular plants of western Mexico. Gymnosperms and pteridophytes. University of Michigan Herbarium, Ann Arbor.

    Google Scholar 

  • — &J. Beitel. 1988. Pteridophyte flora of Oaxaca, Mexico. Mem. New York Bot. Gard. 46: 1–568.

    Google Scholar 

  • Moran, R. C. 1995. The importance of mountains to pteridophytes, with emphasis on neotropical montane forests. Pages 359–363.In: S. P. Churchill et al., editors. Biodiversity and conservation of neotropical montane forests. The New York Botanical Garden, Bronx.

    Google Scholar 

  • — 1996. The importance of the Andes as a barrier to migration, as illustrated by the pteridophytes of the Chocó phytogeographic region. Page 75.In: J. M. Camus, M. Gibby & R. J. Johns, editors. Pteridology in perspective. Royal Botanic Gardens, Kew.

    Google Scholar 

  • — &A. R. Smith. 2001. Phytogeographic relationships between neotropical and African-Madagascan pteridophytes. Brittonia 53: 304–351.

    Google Scholar 

  • Nayar, B. K. 1963. Contributions to the morphology of some species ofMicrosorium. Ann. Bot. (London) 27: 89–100.

    Google Scholar 

  • — &S. Kaur. 1971. Gametophytes of homosporous ferns. Bot. Rev. 37: 295–396.

    Google Scholar 

  • Parris, B. S., R. S. Beaman &J. H. Beaman. 1992. The plants of Mount Kinabalu. I. Ferns and fern allies. Royal Botanic Gardens, Kew.

    Google Scholar 

  • Peck, J. H., C. J. Peck &D. R. Farrar. 1990. Influences of life history attributes on formation of local and distant fern populations. Amer. Fern J. 80: 126–142.

    Google Scholar 

  • Piggott, A. G. &C. J. Piggott. 1988. Ferns of Malaysia in colour. Tropical Press, Kuala Lumpur.

    Google Scholar 

  • Proctor, G. R. 1977. Pteridophyta.In: R. A. Howard, editor. Flora of the Lesser Antilles. Vol. 2. Arnold Arboretum, Harvard University, Cambridge.

    Google Scholar 

  • — 1985. Ferns of Jamaica. British Museum of Natural History, London.

    Google Scholar 

  • — 1989. Ferns of Puerto Rico and the virgin Islands. The New York Botanical Garden, Bronx.

    Google Scholar 

  • Proctor, V. W. 1961. Dispersal ofRiella spores by waterfowl. Bryologist 64: 58–61.

    Google Scholar 

  • Raghavan, V. 1989. Developmental biology of fern gametophytes. Cambridge University Press, Cambridge.

    Google Scholar 

  • Raine, C. A. 1994. The reproductive biology of gemmiferous filmy fern gametophytes. Ph.D. dissertation. University of Manchester, Manchester, U.K.

    Google Scholar 

  • Ranker, T. A. 1992. Genetic diversity of endemic Hawaiian epiphytic ferns: implications for conservation. Selbyana 13: 131–137.

    Google Scholar 

  • —,S. K. Floyd &P. G. Trapp. 1994. Multiple colonizations ofAsplenium adiantum-nigrum onto the Hawaiian Archipelago. Evolution 48: 1364–1370.

    Google Scholar 

  • Richards, P. W. 1984. The ecology of tropical forest bryophytes. Pages 1233–1270.In: R. M. Schuster, editor. New manual of bryology. Vol. 2. Hattori Botanical Laboratory, Nichinan, Japan.

    Google Scholar 

  • Schofield, W. B. 1985. Introduction to bryology. Macmillan, New York.

    Google Scholar 

  • Schneller, J. J. 1979. Biosystematic investigations on the lady fern. Pl. Syst. Evol. 132: 255–277.

    Google Scholar 

  • — 1987. Observations of progeny ofAthyrium filix-femina (Athyriaceae; Pteridophyta) from breeding experiments. Fern Gaz. 13: 157–161.

    Google Scholar 

  • Schuster, R. M. 1983. Phytogeography of the Bryophyta. Pages 463–626.In: R. M. Schuster, editor. New manual of bryology. Vol. 1. Hattori Botanical Laboratory. Nichinan, Japan.

    Google Scholar 

  • — 1988. Ecology, reproductive biology and dispersal of the Hepaticae in the tropics. J. Hattori Bot. Lab. 64: 237–269.

    Google Scholar 

  • Smith, A. R. 1972. Comparison of fern and flowering plant distributions with some evolutionary interpretations for ferns. Biotropica 4: 4–9.

    Google Scholar 

  • — 1981. Pteridophytes.In: D. E. Breedlove, editor. Flora of Chiapas. Part 2. California Academy of Sciences, San Francisco.

    Google Scholar 

  • — 1993. Phytogeographic principles and their use in understanding fern relationships. J. Biogeogr. 20: 255–264.

    Google Scholar 

  • Soltis, D. E. &P. S. Soltis. 1989. Polyploidy, breeding systems, and genetic differentiation in homosporous pteridophytes. Pages 241–258.In: D. E. Soltis & P. S. Soltis, editors. Isozymes in plant biology. Dioscorides Press, Portland, Oregon.

    Google Scholar 

  • ——. 1992. The distribution of selfing rates in homosporous ferns. Amer. J. Bot. 79: 97–100.

    Google Scholar 

  • Steward, A. N. 1958. Manual of vascular plants of the relative to habitat diversity and propensity for colonization. J. Linn. Soc., Bot. 67: 157–174.

    Google Scholar 

  • Holttum, R. E. 1954. Ferns of Malaya.In: Flora of Malaya, Vol. 2. Botanic Gardens, Singapore.

    Google Scholar 

  • Hooper, E. A. &C. H. Haufler. 1997. Genetic diversity and breeding system in a group of neotropical epiphytic ferns (Pleopeltis; Polypodiaceae). Amer. J. Bot. 84: 1664–1674.

    Google Scholar 

  • Kimmerer, R. W. &C. C. Young. 1995. The role of slugs in dispersal of the asexual propagules ofDicranum flagellare. Bryologist 98: 149–153.

    Google Scholar 

  • Kramer, K. U. 1978. The pteridophytes of Suriname, an enumeration with keys of the ferns and fern allies. Natuurwetenschap. Stud. Suriname Nederl. Antillen. Utrecht 93: 1–197.

    Google Scholar 

  • Lloyd, R. M. 1974a. Mating systems and genetic load in pioneer and non-pioneer Hawaiian Pteridophyta. J. Linn. Soc., Bot. 69: 23–35.

    Google Scholar 

  • — 1974b. Reproductive biology and evolution in the Pteridophyta. Ann. Missouri Bot. Gard. 61: 318–331.

    Google Scholar 

  • — 1970. Spore germination and viability in Pteridophyta: evolutionary significance of chlorophyllous spores. Biotropica 2: 129–137.

    Google Scholar 

  • Longton, R. E. &R. M. Schuster. 1983. Reproductive biology. Pages 386–462.In: R. M. Schuster, editor. New manual of bryology. Vol. 1. Hattori Botanical Laboratory, Nichinan, Japan.

    Google Scholar 

  • Lovis, J. D. 1959. The geographical affinities of the New Zealand pteridophyte flora. Brit. Fern Gaz. 9: 16–23.

    Google Scholar 

  • Mickel, J. T. 1992. Pteridophytes. Vol. 17In: R. McVaugh. Flora Novo-Galiciana, a descriptive account of the vascular plants of western Mexico. Gymnosperms and pteridophytes. University of Michigan Herbarium. Ann Arbor.

    Google Scholar 

  • —. 1988. Pteridophyte flora of Oaxaca, Mexico. Mem. New York Bot. Gard. 46: 1–568.

    Google Scholar 

  • Moran, R. C. 1995. The importance of mountains to pteridophytes, with emphasis on neotropical montane forests. Pages 359–363.In: S. P. Churchill et al. editors. Biodiversity and conservation of neotropical montane forests. The New York Botanical Garden, Bronx.

    Google Scholar 

  • — 1996. The importance of the Andes as a barrier to migration, as illustrated by the pteridophytes of the Chocó phytogeographic region. Page 75.In: J. M. Camus, M. Gibby, & R. J. Johns, editors. Pteridology in perspective. Royal Botanic Gardens, Kew.

    Google Scholar 

  • —. 2001. Phytogeographic relationships between neotropical and African-Madagascan pteridophytes. Brittonia 53: 304–351.

    Google Scholar 

  • Nayar, B. K. 1953. Contributions to the morphology of some species ofMicrosorium. Ann. Bot. (London) 27: 89–100.

    Google Scholar 

  • —. 1971. Gametophytes of homosporous ferns. Bot. Rev. 37: 295–396.

    Google Scholar 

  • Parris, B. S., R. S. Beaman &J. H. Beaman. 1992. The plants of Mount Kinabalu. I. Ferns and fern allies. Royal Botanic Gardens, Kew.

    Google Scholar 

  • Peck, J. H., C. J. Peck &D. R. Farrar. 1990. Influences of life history attributes on formation of local and distant fern populations. Amer. Fern J. 80: 126–142.

    Google Scholar 

  • Piggott, A. G. &C. J. Piggott. 1988. Ferns of Malaysia in colour. Tropical Press, Kuala Lumpur.

    Google Scholar 

  • Proctor, G. R. 1977. Pteridophyta.In: R. A. Howard, editor. Flora of the Lesser Antilles. Vol. 2. Arnold Arboretum, Harvard University, Cambridge.

    Google Scholar 

  • — 1985. Ferns of Jamaica. British Museum of Natural History, London.

    Google Scholar 

  • — 1989. Ferns of Puerto Rico and the Virgin Islands. The New York Botanical Garden, Bronx.

    Google Scholar 

  • Proctor, V. W. 1961. Dispersal ofRiella spores by waterfowl. Bryologist 64: 58–61.

    Google Scholar 

  • Raghavan, V. 1989. Developmental biology of fern gametophytes. Cambridge University Press. Cambridge.

    Google Scholar 

  • Raine, C. A. 1994. The reproductive biology of gemmiferous filmy fern gametophytes. Ph.D. dissertation. University of Manchester. Manchester, U.K.

    Google Scholar 

  • Ranker, T. A. 1992. Genetic diversity of endemic Hawaiian epiphytic ferns: implications for conservation. Selbyana 13: 131–137.

    Google Scholar 

  • —. 1994. Multiple colonizations ofAsplenium adiantum-nigrum onto the Hawaiian Archipelago. Evolution 48: 1364–1370.

    Google Scholar 

  • Richards, P. W. 1984. The ecology of tropical forest bryophytes. Pages 1233–1270.In: R. M. Schuster, editor. New manual of bryology. Vol. 2. Hattori Botanical Laboratory, Nichinan, Japan.

    Google Scholar 

  • Schofield, W. B. 1985. Introduction to bryology. Macmillan, New York.

    Google Scholar 

  • Schneller, J. J. 1979. Biosystematic investigations on the lady fern. Pl. Syst. Evol. 132: 255–277.

    Google Scholar 

  • — 1987. Observations of progeny ofAthyrium filix-femina (Athyriaceae: Pteridophyta) from breeding experiments. Fern Gaz. 13: 157–161.

    Google Scholar 

  • Schuster, R. M. 1983. Phytogeography of the Bryophyta. Pages 463–626.In: R. M. Schuster, editor. New manual of bryology. Vol. 1. Hattori Botanical Laboratory. Nichinan, Japan.

    Google Scholar 

  • — 1988. Ecology, reproductive biology and dispersal of the Hepaticae in the tropics. J. Hattori Bot. Lab. 64: 237–269.

    Google Scholar 

  • Smith, A. R. 1972. Comparison of fern and flowering plant distributions with some evolutionary interpretations for ferns. Biotropica 4: 4–9.

    Google Scholar 

  • — 1981. Pteridophytes.In: D. E. Breedlove, editor. Flora of Chiapas. Part 2. California Academy of Sciences, San Francisco.

    Google Scholar 

  • — 1993. Phytogeographic principles and their use in understanding fern relationships. J. Biogeogr. 20: 255–264.

    Google Scholar 

  • Soltis, D. E. &P. S. Soltis. 1989. Polyploidy, breeding systems, and genetic differentiation in homosporous pteridophytes. Pages 241–258.In: D. E. Soltis & P. S. Soltis, editors. Isozymes in plant biology. Dioscorides Press, Portland, Oregon.

    Google Scholar 

  • —&—. 1992. The distribution of selfing rates in homosporous ferns. Amer. J. Bot. 79: 97–100.

    Google Scholar 

  • Steward, A. N. 1958. Manual of vascular plants of the lower Yangtze Valley, China. Oregon State College, Corvalis.

    Google Scholar 

  • Stokey, A. G. 1940. Spore germination and vegetative stages of the gametophytes ofHymenophyllum andTrichomanes. Bot. Gaz. 101: 759–790.

    Google Scholar 

  • —. 1958. The gametophyte of the Grammitidaceae. Phytomorphology 8: 391–403.

    Google Scholar 

  • Stolze, R. G. 1976. Ferns and fern allies of Guatemala. Part 1, Ophioglossaceae through Cyatheaceae. Fieldiana, Bot. 39: 1–130.

    Google Scholar 

  • — 1981. Ferns and fern allies of Guatemala. Part 2. Polypodiaceae. Fieldiana, Bot. n.s. 6: 1–522.

    Google Scholar 

  • Stone, I. G. 1958. The gametophyte and embryo ofPolyphlebium venosum (R. Br.) Copeland (Hymenophyllaceae). Austral. J. Bot. 6: 183–203.

    Google Scholar 

  • — 1960. Observations on the gametophytes ofGrammittis billardieri Willd. andCtenopteris heterophylla (Labill.) Tindale (Grammitidaceae). Austral. J. Bot. 8: 11–37.

    Google Scholar 

  • — 1965. The gametophytes of the Victorian Hymenophyllaceae. Austral. J. Bot. 13: 195–224.

    Google Scholar 

  • Tagawa, M. &K. Iwatsuki. 1979. Pteridophytes.In T. Smitinand & K. Larsen editors. Flora of Thailand. Vol. 3, Part 1. Applied Scientific Research Corp., Bangkok.

    Google Scholar 

  • — 1985. Pteridophytes.In: T. Smitinand & K. Larsen, editors. Flora of Thailand. Vol. 3, Part 2. Forest Herbarium, Royal Forest Department, Bangkok.

    Google Scholar 

  • — 1988. Pteridophytes.In: T. Smitinand & K. Larsen, editors. Flora of Thailand. Vol. 3, Part 3. Forest Herbarium, Royal Forest Department, Bangkok.

    Google Scholar 

  • — 1989. Pteridophytes.In: T. Smitinand & K. Larsen, editors. Flora of Thailand. Vol. 3, Part 4. Forest Herbarium, Royal Forest Department, Bangkok.

    Google Scholar 

  • Tardieu-Blot, Mme. 1951. Marattiacées. Ophioglossacées, Hymenophyllacées, Cyatheacées.In: H. Humbert, editor. Flore de Madagascar et des Comores, (plantes vasculaires). Au Museum D'Histoire Naturelle (Phanerogamie), Paris.

    Google Scholar 

  • — 1952. Parkériacées, Gleicheniacées, Schizaéacées, Osmondacées, Marsiléacées, Salviniacées.In: H. Humbert, editor. Flore de Madagascar et des Comores, (plantes vasculaires). Au Museum D'Histoire Naturelle (Phanerogamie), Paris.

    Google Scholar 

  • — 1958. Polypodiacées (sensu lato) (Dennstaedtiacées-Aspidiacées).In: H. Humbert, editor. Flore de Madagascar et des Comores, (plantes vasculaires). Au Museum D'Histoire Naturelle (Phanerogamie), Paris.

    Google Scholar 

  • — 1960a. Polypodiacées (sensu lato) [Blechnacées-Polypodiacées (sensu stricto)].In: H. Humbert, editor. Flore de Madagascar et des Comores, (plantes vasculaires). Au Museum D'Histoire Naturelle (Phanerogamie), Paris.

    Google Scholar 

  • — 1960b. Les fougéres des Mascareignes et des Seychelles. Notul. Syst. (Paris) 16: 151–201.

    Google Scholar 

  • Thiers, B. M. 1988. Morphological adaptations of the Jungermanniales (Hepaticae) to the tropical rainforest habitat. J. Hattori Bot. Lab. 64: 5–14.

    Google Scholar 

  • Tryon, R. 1970. Development and evolution of fern floras of oceanic islands. Biotropica 2: 76–84.

    Google Scholar 

  • — 1972. Endemic areas and geographic speciation in tropical American ferns. Biotropica 4: 121–131.

    Google Scholar 

  • — 1986. The biogeography of species, with special reference to ferns. Bot. Rev. 52: 117–156.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Vareschi, V. 1968. Helechos. Vol. 1. Tomo 2. Aspleniaceae-Salviniaceae.In: T. Lasser, editor. Flora de Venezuela, Edicion Especial del Instituto Botanico. Talleres Graficos Universitarios, Merida, Venezuela.

    Google Scholar 

  • Walker, E. H. 1976. Flora of Okinawa and the Southern Ryukyu Islands. Smithsonian Institution Press, Washington, DC.

    Google Scholar 

  • Welling, C. B. &C. H. Haufler. 1993. Antheridiogen and its puzzling effects onPolypodium australe. Amer. J. Bot. 80(6 suppl.): 113. Abstract.

    Google Scholar 

  • Zar, J. H. 1996. Biostatistical analysis. Ed. 3. Prentice Hall, Upper Saddle River, New Jersey.

    Google Scholar 

Download references

Author information

Authors and Affiliations

  1. Department of Botany, Iowa State University, 50011, Ames, Iowa, U.S.A.

    Cynthia L. Dassler & Donald R. Farrar

Authors
  1. Cynthia L. Dassler
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

  2. Donald R. Farrar
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

Rights and permissions

Reprints and permissions

About this article

Cite this article

Dassler, C.L., Farrar, D.R. Significance of gametophyte form in long-distance colonization by tropical, epiphytic ferns. Brittonia 53, 352–369 (2001). https://doi.org/10.1007/BF02812705

Download citation

  • Issue Date:

  • DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/BF02812705

Key words

Search

Navigation