Abstract
A new method to estimate the parameters of Tucker's three-mode principal component model is discussed, and the convergence properties of the alternating least squares algorithm to solve the estimation problem are considered. A special case of the general Tucker model, in which the principal component analysis is only performed over two of the three modes is briefly outlined as well. The Miller & Nicely data on the confusion of English consonants are used to illustrate the programs TUCKALS3 and TUCKALS2 which incorporate the algorithms for the two models described.
Similar content being viewed by others
Reference notes
Carroll, J. D. & Chang, J. J.IDIOSCAL: A generalization of INDSCAL allowing IDIOsyncratic reference systems as well as an analytic approximation to INDSCAL. Paper presented at the Spring Meeting of the Psychometric Society, Princeton, N. J., March 1972.
Harshman, R. A.Foundations of the PARAFAC procedure: Models and conditions for an “explanatory” multimode factor analysis (Working Papers in Phonetics No. 16). Los Angeles: University of California, 1970.
Jennrich, R.A generalization of the multidimensional scaling model of Carroll & Chang (Working Papers in Phonetics No. 22). Los Angeles: University of California, 1972.
Kroonenberg, P. M. & de Leeuw, J.TUCKALS2: A principal component analysis of three mode data (Res. Bull. RB 001-77). Leiden: Department of Data Theory, University of Leiden, 1977.
Levin, J.Three-mode factor analysis (Unpublished doctoral thesis). Urbana, Ill.: University of Illinois, 1963.
Wish, M.An INDSCAL analysis of the Miller & Nicely consonant confusion data. Paper presented at meetings of the Acoustical Society of America. Houston, November, 1970.
References
Carroll, J. D. & Chang, J. J. Analysis of individual differences in multidimensional scaling via an N-way generalization of “Eckart-Young” decomposition.Psychometrika, 1970,35, 283–320.
Carroll, J. D. & Wish, M. Models and methods for three-way multidimensional scaling. In D. H. Krantz, R. D. Luce, R. C. Atkinson, & P. Suppes (Eds.),Contemporary developments in mathematical psychology (Vol. II). San Francisco: W. H. Freeman, 1974.
d'Esopo, D. A. A convex programming procedure.Naval Research Logistics Quarterly, 1959,11, 33–42.
Hubert, L. J. & Baker, F. B. Evaluating the symmetry of a proximity matrix.Quality & Quantity, 1979,13, 77–84.
Israelsson, A. Three-way (or second order) component analysis. In H. Wold & E. Lyttkens (Eds.), Nonlinear iterative partial least-squares (NIPALS) estimation procedures.Bulletin of the International Statistical Institute, 1969,43, 29–51.
Meyer, R. R. The validity of a family of optimization methods.SIAM Journal of Control and Optimization, 1970,15, 699–715.
Miller, G. A. & Nicely, P. E. An analysis of perceptual confusion among some English consonants.Journal of the Acoustical Society of America, 1955,27, 338–352.
Osgood, C. E., Suci, G. J. & Tannenbaum, T. H.The measurement of meaning. Urbana, Ill.: University of Illinois Press, 1957.
Ostrowski, A. M.Solution of equations and systems of equations. New York: Academic Press, 1966.
Penrose, R. On the best approximate solutions of linear matrix equations.Proceedings of the Cambridge Philosophical Society, 1955,51, 406–413.
Rutishauser, H. Computational aspects of F. L. Bauer's simultaneous iteration method.Numerische Mathematik, 1969,13, 4–13.
Sands, R. & Young, F. W. Component models for three-way data: ALSCOMP3, an alternating least squares algorithm with optimal scaling features.Psychometrika, 1980,45, 39–67.
Schwartz, H. R., Rutishauser, H. & Stiefel, E.Numerik. Symmetrischer matrizen. Stuttgart: Teubner, 1968.
Shepard, R. N. Psychological representation of speech sounds. In E. E. David & P. B. Denes (Eds.),Human communication. A unified view. New York: McGraw Hill, 1972.
Shepard, R. N. Representation of structure in similarity data: Problems and prospects.Psychometrika, 1974,39, 373–421.
Smith, P. T. Feature-testing models and their application to perception and memory for speech.Quarterly Journal of Experimental Psychology, 1973,25, 511–534.
Smith, P. T. & Jones, K. F. Some hierarchical scaling methods for confusion matrix analysis II. Application to large matrices.British Journal of Mathematical and Statistical Psychology, 1975,28, 30–45.
Soli, S. D. & Arabie, P. Auditory versus phonetic accounts of observed confusions between consonant phonemes.Journal of the Acoustical Society of America, 1979,66, 46–59.
Takane, Y., Young, F. W. & de Leeuw, J. Non-metric individual differences multidimensional scaling: An alternating least squares method with optimal scaling features.Psychometrika, 1977,42, 7–67.
Tucker, L. R. Implications of factor analysis of three-way matrices for measurement of change. In C. W. Harris (Ed.),Problems in measuring change. Madison, Wis.: University of Wisconsin Press, 1963.
Tucker, L. R. The extension of factor analysis to three-dimensional matrices. In H. Gulliksen & N. Frederiksen (Eds.),Contributions to mathematical psychology. New York: Holt, Rinehardt & Winston, 1964.
Tucker, L. R. Some mathematical notes on three-mode factor analysis.Psychometrika, 1966,31, 279–311.
Tucker, L. R. Relations between multidimensional scaling and three-mode factor analysis.Psychometrika, 1972,37, 3–27.
Tucker, L. R. & Messick, S. An individual difference model for multidimensional scaling.Psychometrika, 1963,28, 333–367.
Wainer, H., Gruvaeus, G. & Blair, M. TREBIG: A 360/75 FORTRAN program for three-mode factor analysis for big data sets.Behavioral Research Methods and Instrumentation, 1974,6, 53–54.
Wainer, H., Gruvaeus, G. & Snijder, F. TREMOD: A 360/75 program for three-mode factor analysis.Behavioral Science, 1971,16, 421–422.
Walsh, J. A. An IBM 709 program for factor analyzing three-mode matrices.Educational and Psychological Measurement, 1964,24, 669–773.
Walsh, J. A. & Walsh, R. A revised Fortran program for three-mode factor analysis.Educational and Psychological Measurement, 1976,36, 169–170.
Young, F. W., de Leeuw, J. & Takane, Y. Quantifying qualitative data. In E. D. Lantermann & H. Feger (Eds.),Similarity and choice. Bern: Huber, 1980 (in press).
Author information
Authors and Affiliations
Rights and permissions
About this article
Cite this article
Kroonenberg, P.M., de Leeuw, J. Principal component analysis of three-mode data by means of alternating least squares algorithms. Psychometrika 45, 69–97 (1980). https://doi.org/10.1007/BF02293599
Received:
Revised:
Issue Date:
DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/BF02293599