Skip to main content
Springer Nature Link
Log in

Esophageal Cancer

  • Chapter
  • First Online:
Biomedical Aspects of Solid Cancers

  • 375 Accesses

Abstract

In 2020, Esophageal Cancer (EC) ranked seventh in incidence and sixth in overall mortality globally [1]. In the United States, the incidence (5.6/100,000) is lower than the global average (9.3/100,000) [2]. Among the two histological subtypes, esophageal squamous cell carcinoma (ESCC), which occurs most frequently in the proximal two-thirds region of the esophagus, constitutes 87%, while esophageal adenocarcinoma (EAC), mostly observed in the distal one-third of the esophagus, accounts for 11% of all cases [1, 2]. While ESCC was more prevalent in the past, the increased incidence of EAC in recent years has been reported as a result of increased occurrence of EAC-associated risk factors that include obesity and GERD combined with reduced ESCC risk factors such as lowered use of alcohol and tobacco [3]. The incidence of EC increases with aging: in the United States, the average age of diagnosis is 68 years, and 88% of all cases occur after the age of 55 years [2]. According to the SEER database for the year 2016, the age-adjusted incidence rates were 0.3, 8.0, 20.3, and 24.9 per 100,000, and mortality rates were 0.3, 6.9, 17.5, and 25 per 100,000 for the age groups 20–49, 50–64, 65–74, and 75 or above, respectively [2]. The highest risk of incidence is reported in the area between central Asia and North-Central China, which is considered the EC belt; approximately half of the deaths occur in China [4]. Least incidence rate of 0.98/100 was reported in Central America [2, 5]. Males make up to 70% of all cases, with a two- to threefold increased incidence and mortality rates compared to females [1, 5]. For men, incidence and mortality rates are higher in developed countries than in developing countries; however, for women, rates are comparable [1]. Moreover, white men have a high prevalence of EAC, which has increased by threefold between the years 1976 and 1990 [6].

This is a preview of subscription content, log in via an institution to check access.

Access this chapter

Log in via an institution

Subscribe and save

Springer+ Basic
$34.99 /Month
  • Get 10 units per month
  • Download Article/Chapter or eBook
  • 1 Unit = 1 Article or 1 Chapter
  • Cancel anytime
Subscribe now

Buy Now

Chapter
USD 29.95
Price excludes VAT (USA)
  • Available as PDF
  • Read on any device
  • Instant download
  • Own it forever

Tax calculation will be finalised at checkout

Purchases are for personal use only

Institutional subscriptions

Similar content being viewed by others

References

  1. Sung H, Ferlay J, Siegel RL, Laversanne M, Soerjomataram I, Jemal A, Bray F. Global cancer statistics 2020: GLOBOCAN estimates of incidence and mortality worldwide for 36 cancers in 185 countries. CA Cancer J Clin. 2021;71(3):209–49.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  2. Uhlenhopp DJ, Then EO, Sunkara T, Gaduputi V. Epidemiology of esophageal cancer: update in global trends, etiology and risk factors. Clin J Gastroenterol. 2020;13(6):1010–21.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  3. Crew KD, Neugut AI. Epidemiology of upper gastrointestinal malignancies. In: Seminars in oncology, vol. 31. WB Saunders; 2004. p. 450–64.

    Google Scholar 

  4. Hongo M, Nagasaki Y, Shoji T. Epidemiology of esophageal cancer: orient to occident. Effects of chronology, geography and ethnicity. J Gastroenterol Hepatol. 2009;24(5):729–35.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  5. Bray F, Ferlay J, Soerjomataram I, Siegel RL, Torre LA, Jemal A. Global cancer statistics 2018: GLOBOCAN estimates of incidence and mortality worldwide for 36 cancers in 185 countries. CA Cancer J Clin. 2018;68(6):394–424.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  6. Blot WJ, Devesa SS, Fraumeni JF. Continuing climb in rates of esophageal adenocarcinoma: an update. JAMA. 1993;270(11):1320.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  7. Brown LM, Hoover RN, Greenberg RS, Schoenberg JB, Schwartz AG, Swanson GM, Liff JM, Silverman DT, Hayes RB, Pottern LM. Are racial differences in squamous cell esophageal cancer explained by alcohol and tobacco use? JNCI J Natl Cancer Inst. 1994;86(17):1340–5.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  8. Jiang X, Tseng CC, Bernstein L, Wu AH. Family history of cancer and gastroesophageal disorders and risk of esophageal and gastric adenocarcinomas: a case–control study. BMC Cancer. 2014;14:60.

    Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  9. Rosenberg PS, Greene MH, Alter BP. Cancer incidence in persons with Fanconi anemia. Blood. 2003;101(3):822–6.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  10. Blaydon DC, Etheridge SL, Risk JM, Hennies HC, Gay LJ, Carroll R, Plagnol V, McRonald FE, Stevens HP, Spurr NK, Bishop DT. RHBDF2 mutations are associated with tylosis, a familial esophageal cancer syndrome. Am J Hum Genet. 2012;90(2):340–6.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  11. De Pergola G, Silvestris F. Obesity as a major risk factor for cancer. J Obes. 2013;2013:1.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  12. Hampel H, Abraham NS, El-Serag HB. Meta-analysis: obesity and the risk for gastroesophageal reflux disease and its complications. Ann Intern Med. 2005;143(3):199–211.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  13. Corley DA, Kubo A, Zhao W. Abdominal obesity and the risk of esophageal and gastric cardia carcinomas. Cancer Epidemiol Biomark Prev. 2008;17(2):352–8.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  14. Thrift AP, Pandeya N, Smith KJ, Green AC, Hayward NK, Webb PM, Whiteman DC. Helicobacter pylori infection and the risks of Barrett’s oesophagus: a population-based case–control study. Int J Cancer. 2012;130(10):2407–16.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  15. Smyth EC, Lagergren J, Fitzgerald RC, Lordick F, Shah MA, Lagergren P, Cunningham D. Oesophageal cancer. Nat Rev Dis Primers. 2017;3(1):1–21.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  16. Kambhampati S, Xu Y, Meltzer S. Risk factors for progression of Barrett’s esophagus to high-grade dysplasia and esophageal carcinoma: 456. Am Coll Gastroenterol. 2016;111:S205–6.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  17. Rubenstein JH, Taylor JB. Meta-analysis: the association of oesophageal adenocarcinoma with symptoms of gastro-oesophageal reflux. Aliment Pharmacol Ther. 2010;32(10):1222–7.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  18. Kubo A, Levin TR, Block G, Rumore GJ, Quesenberry CP Jr, Buffler P, Corley DA. Dietary patterns and the risk of Barrett’s esophagus. Am J Epidemiol. 2008;167(7):839–46.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  19. Hvid-Jensen F, Pedersen L, Drewes AM, Sørensen HT, Funch-Jensen P. Incidence of adenocarcinoma among patients with Barrett’s esophagus. N Engl J Med. 2011;365(15):1375–83.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  20. Zendehdel K, Nyrén O, Edberg A, Ye W. Risk of esophageal adenocarcinoma in achalasia patients, a retrospective cohort study in Sweden. Am Coll Gastroenterol ACG. 2011;106(1):57–61.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  21. Stiff G, Alwafi A, Rees BI, Lari J. Corrosive injuries of the oesophagus and stomach: experience in management at a regional paediatric centre. Ann R Coll Surg Engl. 1996;78(2):119.

    CAS  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  22. Lee CH, Lee JM, Wu DC, Hsu HK, Kao EL, Huang HL, Wang TN, Huang MC, Wu MT. Independent and combined effects of alcohol intake, tobacco smoking and betel quid chewing on the risk of esophageal cancer in Taiwan. Int J Cancer. 2005;113(3):475–82.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  23. Enzinger PC, Mayer RJ. Esophageal cancer. N Engl J Med. 2003;349(23):2241–52.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  24. Alsop BR, Sharma P. Esophageal cancer. Gastroenterol Clin. 2016;45(3):399–412.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  25. Arnal MJ, Arenas ÁF, Arbeloa ÁL. Esophageal cancer: risk factors, screening and endoscopic treatment in Western and eastern countries. World J Gastroenterol WJG. 2015;21(26):7933.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  26. Schweigert M, Dubecz A, Stein HJ. Oesophageal cancer—an overview. Nat Rev Gastroenterol Hepatol. 2013;10(4):230–44.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  27. Napier KJ, Scheerer M, Misra S. Esophageal cancer: a review of epidemiology, pathogenesis, staging workup and treatment modalities. World J Gastrointest Oncol. 2014;6(5):112.

    Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  28. Yang W, Han Y, Zhao X, Duan L, Zhou W, Wang X, Shi G, Che Y, Zhang Y, Liu J, Zhang H. Advances in prognostic biomarkers for esophageal cancer. Expert Rev Mol Diagn. 2019;19(2):109–19.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  29. Lam AK. Updates on World Health Organization classification and staging of esophageal tumors: implications for future clinical practice. Hum Pathol. 2021;108:100–12.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  30. Ohashi S, Miyamoto SI, Kikuchi O, Goto T, Amanuma Y, Muto M. Recent advances from basic and clinical studies of esophageal squamous cell carcinoma. Gastroenterology. 2015;149(7):1700–15.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  31. Jeene PM, Geijsen ED, Muijs CT, Rozema T, Aleman BM, Muller K, Baas JM, Nuyttens JJ, Wouterse S, Braam PM, Oppedijk V. Small cell carcinoma of the esophagus: a nationwide analysis of treatment and outcome at patient level in locoregional disease. Am J Clin Oncol. 2019;42(6):534.

    Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  32. Yun JP, Zhang MF, Hou JH, Tian QH, Fu J, Liang XM, Wu QL, Rong TH. Primary small cell carcinoma of the esophagus: clinicopathological and immunohistochemical features of 21 cases. BMC Cancer. 2007;7:1–8.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  33. Hong SJ, Kim TJ, Nam KB, Lee IS, Yang HC, Cho S, Kim K, Jheon S, Lee KW. New TNM staging system for esophageal cancer: what chest radiologists need to know. Radiographics. 2014;34(6):1722–40.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  34. Rice TW, Ishwaran H, Ferguson MK, Blackstone EH, Goldstraw P. Cancer of the esophagus and esophagogastric junction: an eighth edition staging primer. J Thorac Oncol. 2017;12(1):36–42.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  35. Patti MG, Gantert W, Way LW. Surgery of the esophagus: anatomy and physiology. Surg Clin. 1997;77(5):959–70.

    CAS  Google Scholar 

  36. Bajwa SA, Toro F, Kasi A. Physiology, esophagus. In: StatPearls [Internet]. 8th ed. StatPearls Publishing; 2022.

    Google Scholar 

  37. Fielding JW, Hallissey MT, Lamb PJ, Griffin SM. The anatomy and physiology of the oesophagus. In: Upper gastrointestinal surgery. Springer; 2005. p. 1–5.

    Google Scholar 

  38. Yazaki E, Sifrim D. Anatomy and physiology of the esophageal body. Dis Esophagus. 2012;25(4):292–8.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  39. Mao WM, Zheng WH, Ling ZQ. Epidemiologic risk factors for esophageal cancer development. Asian Pac J Cancer Prev. 2011;12(10):2461–6.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  40. Huang FL, Yu SJ. Esophageal cancer: risk factors, genetic association, and treatment. Asian J Surg. 2018;41(3):210–5.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  41. Lewis SJ, Davey Smith G. Alcohol, ALDH2, and esophageal cancer: a meta-analysis which illustrates the potentials and limitations of a Mendelian randomization approach. Cancer Epidemiol Biomark Prev. 2005;14(8):1967–71.

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  42. Song Y, Li L, Ou Y, Gao Z, Li E, Li X, Zhang W, Wang J, Xu L, Zhou Y, Ma X. Identification of genomic alterations in oesophageal squamous cell cancer. Nature. 2014;509(7498):91–5.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  43. Gokulan RC, Garcia-Buitrago MT, Zaika AI. From genetics to signaling pathways: molecular pathogenesis of esophageal adenocarcinoma. Biochim Biophys Acta (BBA) Rev Cancer. 2019;1872(1):37–48.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  44. Buas MF, He Q, Johnson LG, Onstad L, Levine DM, Thrift AP, Gharahkhani P, Palles C, Lagergren J, Fitzgerald RC, Ye W. Germline variation in inflammation-related pathways and risk of Barrett’s oesophagus and oesophageal adenocarcinoma. Gut. 2017;66(10):1739–47.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  45. Kato H, Nakajima M. Treatments for esophageal cancer: a review. Gen Thorac Cardiovasc Surg. 2013;61:330–5.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  46. Laack E, Andritzky B, Dürk H, Burkholder I, Edler L, Schuch G, Boeters I, Görn M, Lipp R, Horst H, Popp J. Docetaxel and cisplatin as first-line treatment for patients with metastatic esophageal cancer: a pilot study. Oncol Res Treat. 2005;28(12):647–50.

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  47. van Meerten E, Eskens FA, Van Gameren EC, Doorn L, van der Gaast A. First-line treatment with oxaliplatin and capecitabine in patients with advanced or metastatic oesophageal cancer: a phase II study. Br J Cancer. 2007;96(9):1348–52.

    Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  48. Tanaka T, Fujita H, Sueyoshi S, Tanaka Y, Sasahara H, Mori N, Nagano T, Yamana H, Shirouzu K. Second-line combination chemotherapy with docetaxel for cisplatin-pretreated refractory metastatic esophageal cancer: a preliminary report of initial experience. Chemotherapy. 2007;53(6):449–53.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

Download references

Author information

Authors and Affiliations

  1. Molecular Medicine and Therapeutics Laboratory, Centre for Plant Molecular Biology, Osmania University, Hyderabad, Telangana, India

    Meghana Korikani, Veena Akula & Rama Krishna Kancha

  2. Department of Genomics and Molecular Biology, Institute of Translational Research, Asian Institute of Gastroenterology, Hyderabad, Telangana, India

    Ravikanth Vishnubhotla

Authors
  1. Meghana Korikani
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

  2. Veena Akula
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

  3. Ravikanth Vishnubhotla
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

  4. Rama Krishna Kancha
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

Corresponding author

Correspondence to Rama Krishna Kancha .

Editor information

Editors and Affiliations

  1. Centre for Plant Molecular Biology, Osmania University, Hyderabad, India

    Rama Krishna Kancha

Rights and permissions

Reprints and permissions

Copyright information

© 2024 The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature Singapore Pte Ltd.

About this chapter

Check for updates. Verify currency and authenticity via CrossMark

Cite this chapter

Korikani, M., Akula, V., Vishnubhotla, R., Kancha, R.K. (2024). Esophageal Cancer. In: Kancha, R.K. (eds) Biomedical Aspects of Solid Cancers. Springer, Singapore. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-981-97-1802-3_3

Download citation

  • DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/978-981-97-1802-3_3

  • Published:

  • Publisher Name: Springer, Singapore

  • Print ISBN: 978-981-97-1801-6

  • Online ISBN: 978-981-97-1802-3

  • eBook Packages: MedicineMedicine (R0)

Publish with us

Policies and ethics