Skip to main content
SpringerLink
Log in

Determination of Chemical Toxicity

  • Chapter
  • First Online:
Public Health Risk Assessment for Human Exposure to Chemicals

Part of the book series: Environmental Pollution ((EPOL,volume 27))

  • 1247 Accesses

Abstract

In planning for public health protection from the likely adverse effects of human exposure to chemicals, a primary concern usually relates to whether or not the substance in question possesses potentially hazardous and/or toxic properties. In practice, an evaluation of the toxicological effects typically consists of a compilation of toxicological profiles of the chemicals of potential concern (including the intrinsic toxicological properties of the chemicals—which may include their acute, subchronic, chronic, carcinogenic, and/or reproductive effects), as well as a determination of the relevant toxicity indices. This chapter discusses the major underlying concepts, principles, and procedures that are often employed in the evaluation of the hazard effects or toxicity of various chemical constituents found in consumer products and/or in the human environments.

This is a preview of subscription content, log in via an institution to check access.

Access this chapter

Log in via an institution
Chapter
USD 29.95
Price excludes VAT (USA)
  • Available as PDF
  • Read on any device
  • Instant download
  • Own it forever
eBook
USD 149.00
Price excludes VAT (USA)
  • Available as EPUB and PDF
  • Read on any device
  • Instant download
  • Own it forever
Softcover Book
USD 199.99
Price excludes VAT (USA)
  • Compact, lightweight edition
  • Dispatched in 3 to 5 business days
  • Free shipping worldwide - see info
Hardcover Book
USD 199.99
Price excludes VAT (USA)
  • Durable hardcover edition
  • Dispatched in 3 to 5 business days
  • Free shipping worldwide - see info

Tax calculation will be finalised at checkout

Purchases are for personal use only

Institutional subscriptions

Suggested Reading

  • ATSDR. (1997). Technical support document for ATSDR interim policy guideline: Dioxin and Dioxin-like compounds in soil. Atlanta, GA: Agency for Toxic Substances and Disease Registry (ATSDR), US Department of Health and Human Services.

    Google Scholar 

  • Birnbaum, L. S. (1999). TEFs: A practical approach to a real-world problem. Human and Ecological Risk Assessment, 5, 13–24.

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Birnbaum, L. S., & DeVito, M. J. (1995). Use of toxic equivalency factors for risk assessment for dioxins and related compounds. Toxicology, 105(2–3), 391–401.

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Chen, C.-C., & Chen, J. J. (2014). Benchmark dose calculation for ordered categorical responses. Risk Analysis, 34(8), 1435–1447.

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Crosby, D. G. (1998). Environmental toxicology and chemistry. New York: Oxford University Press.

    Google Scholar 

  • Haws, L. C., Su, S. H., Harris, M., et al. (2006). Development of a refined database of mammalian relative potency estimates for dioxin-like compounds. Toxicological Science, 89(1), 4–30.

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Klaassen, C. D. (2002). Xenobiotic transporters: another protective mechanism for chemicals. International Journal of Toxicology, 21(1), 7–12.

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Krewski, D., Andersen, M. E., Mantus, E., & Zeise, L. (2009). Toxicity testing in the 21st Century: Implications for human health risk assessment. Risk Analysis, 29(4), 474–479.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Lutter, R., Abbott, L., Becker, R., et al. (2015). Improving weight of evidence approaches to chemical evaluations. Risk Analysis, 35(2), 186–192.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • NAS (National Academy of Science). (2006). Health risks from Dioxin and related compounds: Evaluation of the EPA reassessment. Washington, DC: National Academy Press.

    Google Scholar 

  • NRC (National Research Council), 2002. Scientific frontiers in developmental toxicology and risk assessment, National Academy Press, Washington, DC

    Google Scholar 

  • NRC (National Research Council), 2007. Toxicity Testing in the 21st Century: A vision and a strategy. The National Academies Press, Washington, DC

    Google Scholar 

  • Ottoboni, M. A. (1997). The dose makes the poison (A plain language guide to toxicology) (2nd ed.). ITP, New York: Van Nostrand Reinhold.

    Google Scholar 

  • Piegorsch, W. W., Xiong, H., Bhattacharya, R. N., & Lin, L. (2014). Benchmark dose analysis via nonparametric regression modeling. Risk Analysis, 34(1), 135–151.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Shao, K., & Gift, J. S. (2014). Model uncertainty and Bayesian model averaged benchmark dose estimation for continuous data. Risk Analysis, 34(1), 101–120.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • USEPA. (2000). Supplementary Guidance for Conducting Health Risk Assessment of Chemical Mixtures. U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, Washington, DC. EPA/630/R-00/002. August.

    Google Scholar 

  • USEPA. (2004). Risk Assessment Guidance for Superfund Volume I: Human Health Evaluation Manual (Part E, Supplemental Guidance for Dermal Risk Assessment) Final. U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, Office of Emergency and Remedial Response. EPA/540/R/99/005. July.

    Google Scholar 

  • USEPA. (2008). Framework for Application of the Toxicity Equivalence Methodology for Polychlorinated Dioxins, Furans, and Biphenyls in Ecological Risk Assessment. Risk Assessment Forum, U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, Washington, DC. EPA/100/R-08/004. June 2008.

    Google Scholar 

  • USEPA. (2010). US EPA 2010. Recommended Toxicity Equivalence Factors (TEFs) for Human Health Risk Assessments of 2,3,7,8- Tetrachlorodibenzo-p-dioxin and Dioxin-Like Compounds. Risk Assessment Forum, U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, Washington, DC. EPA/100/R-10/005. December 2010.

    Google Scholar 

  • USEPA. (2011). Exposure factors handbook 2011 Edition (Final). National Center for Environmental Assessment, Office of Research and Development. Washington, DC.

    Google Scholar 

  • Van den Berg, M., Birnbaum, L. S., Bosveld, A. T. C., et al. (1998). Toxic equivalency factors (TEFs) for PCBs, PCDDs, PCDFs for humans and wildlife. Environmental Health Perspectives, 106(12), 775–792.

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Van den Berg, M., Birnbaum, L. S., Denison, M., et al. (2006). The 2005 World health organization re-evaluation of human and mammalian toxic equivalency factors for dioxins and dioxin-like compounds. Toxicological Science, 93(2), 223–241.

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • van Leeuwen, F. X. R. (1997). Derivation of toxic equivalency factors (TEFs) for dioxin-like compounds in humans and wildlife. Organohalogen Compounds, 34, 237–269.

    Google Scholar 

  • Walker, NJ, PW Crockett, A. Nyska, et al., 2005. Dose-additive carcinogenicity of a defined mixture of “Dioxin-like Compounds”, Environmental Health Perspectives, 113(1): 43-48.

    Google Scholar 

Bibliography

  • Brown, C. (1978). Statistical aspects of extrapolation of dichotomous dose response data. Journal of National Cancer Institute, 60, 101–108.

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Carson, R. (1962). Silent spring. New York: Houghton Mifflin.

    Google Scholar 

  • Carson, R. (1994). Silent spring—With an introduction by Vice President Al Gore. New York: Houghton Mifflin.

    Google Scholar 

  • Casarett, L. J., & Doull, J. (1975). Toxicology: The basic science of poisons. New York: MacMillan.

    Google Scholar 

  • CDHS. (1986). The California site mitigation decision tree manual. Sacremento, CA: California Department of Health Services (CDHS), Toxic Substances Control Division.

    Google Scholar 

  • Cohrssen, J. J., & Covello, V. T. (1989). Risk analysis: A guide to principles and methods for analyzing health and environmental risks. Springfield, VA: National Technical Information Service (NTIS), US Dept. of Commerce.

    Google Scholar 

  • Crump, K. S. (1981). An improved procedure for low-dose carcinogenic risk assessment from animal data. Journal of Environmental Toxicology, 5, 339–346.

    Google Scholar 

  • Crump, K. S. (1984). A new method for determining allowable daily intakes. Fundamentals of Applied Toxicology, 4, 854–871.

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Crump, K. S. (1995). Calculation of benchmark doses from continuous data. Risk Analysis, 15, 79–89.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Crump, K. S., & Howe, R. B. (1984). The multistage model with time-dependent dose pattern: applications of carcinogenic risk assessment. Risk Analysis, 4, 163–176.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Derelanko, M. J., & Hollinger, M. A. (Eds.). (1995). CRC handbook of toxicology. Boca Raton, FL: CRC Press.

    Google Scholar 

  • Dourson, M. L., & Stara, J. F. (1983). Regulatory history and experimental support of uncertainty (safety) factors. Regulatory Toxicology and Pharmacology, 3, 224–238.

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • DTSC. (1994a). CalTOX, A multimedia exposure model for hazardous waste sites. Sacramento, CA: Office of Scientific Affairs, CalEPA/DTSC.

    Google Scholar 

  • DTSC. (1994b). Preliminary endangerment assessment guidance manual (A guidance manual for evaluating hazardous substance release sites). Sacramento, CA: California Environmental Protection Agency, Department of Toxic Substances Control (DTSC).

    Google Scholar 

  • Faes, C., Aerts, M., Geys, H., & Molenberghs, G. (2007). Model averaging using fractional polynomials to estimate a safe level of exposure. Risk Analysis, 27, 111–123.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Gaylor, D. W., & Kodell, R. L. (1980). Linear interpolation algorithm for low dose risk assessment of toxic substances. Journal of Environmental Pathology and Toxicology, 4, 305–312.

    CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Gaylor, D. W., & Shapiro, R. E. (1979). Extrapolation and risk estimation for carcinogenesis. In M. A. Mehlman, R. E. Shapiro, & H. Blumenthal (Eds.), Advances in modern toxicology Vol. 1, New concepts in safety evaluation Part 2 (pp. 65–85). New York: Hemisphere.

    Google Scholar 

  • Golden, R., & Kimbrough, R. (2009). Weight of evidence evaluation of potential human cancer risks from exposure to polychlorinated biphenyls: an update based on studies published since 2003. Critical Reviews in Toxicology, 39, 299–331.

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Golden, R., Doull, J., Waddell, W., & Mandel, J. (2003). Potential human cancer risks from exposure to PCBs: A tale of two evaluations. Critical Reviews in Toxicology, 33, 543–580.

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Hallenbeck, W. H., & Cunningham, K. M. (1988). Quantitative risk assessment for environmental and occupational health (4th ed.). Chelsea, MI: Lewis.

    Google Scholar 

  • Hogan, M. D. (1983). Extrapolation of animal carcinogenicity data: Limitations and pitfalls. Environmental Health Perspectives, 47, 333–337.

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Huckle, K. R. (1991). Risk assessment—Regulatory need or nightmare. Shell Center, London, England: Shell (8pp).

    Google Scholar 

  • Huff, J. E. (1993). Chemicals and cancer in humans: First evidence in experimental animals. Environmental Health Perspectives, 100, 201–210.

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Hughes, W. W. (1996). Essentials of environmental toxicology: The effects of environmentally hazardous substances on human health. Washington, DC: Taylor & Francis.

    Google Scholar 

  • IARC. (1982). IARC monographs on the evaluation of the carcinogenic risk of chemicals to humans: Chemicals, industrial processes and industries associated with cancer in humans, Supplement 4. Lyon, France: International Agency for Research on Cancer (IARC).

    Google Scholar 

  • IARC. (1984). IARC monographs on the evaluation of the carcinogenic risk of chemicals to humans (Vol. 33). Lyon, France: International Agency for Research on Cancer (IARC).

    Google Scholar 

  • IARC. (1987). IARC monographs on the evaluation of carcinogenic risks of chemicals to humans: Overall evaluations of carcinogenicity, Supplement 7. Lyon, France: International Agency for Research on Cancer (IARC).

    Google Scholar 

  • IARC. (1988). IARC monographs on evaluation of carcinogenic risks to humans (Vol. 43). Lyon, France: International Agency for Research on Cancer (IARC).

    Google Scholar 

  • Jolley, R. L., & Wang, R. G. M. (Eds.). (1993). Effective and safe waste management: Interfacing sciences and engineering with monitoring and risk analysis. Boca Raton, FL: Lewis.

    Google Scholar 

  • Kim, S. B., Kodell, R. L., & Moon, H. (2014). A diversity index for model space selection in the estimation of benchmark and infectious doses via model averaging. Risk Analysis, 34(3), 453–464.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Kimmel, C. A., & Gaylor, D. W. (1988). Issues in qualitative and quantitative risk analysis for developmental toxicology. Risk Analysis, 8, 15–20.

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Klaassen, C. D., Amdur, M. O., & Doull, J. (Eds.). (1986). Casarett and Doull’s toxicology: The basic science of poisons (3rd ed.). New York: Macmillan.

    Google Scholar 

  • Klaassen, C. D., Amdur, M. O., & Doull, J. (Eds.). (1996). Casarett and Doull’s toxicology: The basic science of poisons (5th ed.). New York: McGraw-Hill.

    Google Scholar 

  • Krewski, D., & van Ryzin, J. (1981). Dose response models for quantal response toxicity data. In M. Csorgo, D. A. Dawson, J. N. K. Rao, & A. K. E. Saleh (Eds.), Statistics and related topics (pp. 201–231). New York: North Holland.

    Google Scholar 

  • Lave, L. B. (Ed.). (1982). Quantitative risk assessment in regulation. Washington, DC: The Brooking Institute.

    Google Scholar 

  • Meek, M. E. (2001). Categorical default uncertainty factors—Interspecies variation and adequacy of database. Humand and Ecological Risk Assessment, 7, 157–163.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Meyer, C. R. (1983). Liver Dysfunction in Residents Exposed to Leachate from a Toxic Waste Dump. Environ. Health Persp., 48, 9–13.

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Moeller, D. W. (1997). Environmental Health (Revisedth ed.). Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press.

    Google Scholar 

  • NATO/CCMS, 1988a. Pilot Study on International Information Exchange on Dioxins and Related Compounds, North Atlantic Treaty Organization, Committee on the Challenges of Modern Society, Report 176, August 1988

    Google Scholar 

  • NATO/CCMS, 1988b. Scientific Basis for the Development of International Toxicity Equivalency Factor (I-TEF), Method of Risk Assessment for Complex Mixtures of Dioxins and Related Compounds, North Atlantic Treaty Organization, Committee on the Challenges of Modern Society, Report No. 178, December 1988

    Google Scholar 

  • NRC. (1991a). Environmental Epidemiology (Public Health and Hazardous Wastes). Washington, DC: National Academy Press.

    Google Scholar 

  • NRC. (1991b). Frontiers in Assessing Human Exposure to Environmental Toxicants. Washington, DC: National Academy Press.

    Google Scholar 

  • NRC. (1991c). Human Exposure Assessment for Airborne Pollutants: Advances and Opportunities. Washington, DC: National Academy Press.

    Google Scholar 

  • NRC. (2009). Science and decisions: Advancing risk assessment. Washington, DC: Committee on Improving Risk Analysis Approaches Used by the U.S. EPA The National Academies Press.

    Google Scholar 

  • OSHA. (1980). Identification, classification, and regulation of potential occupational carcinogens, Occupational Safety and Health Administration (OSHA), US Department of Labor. Federal Register, 45(13), 5001–5296.

    Google Scholar 

  • OSTP (Office of Science and Technology Policy). (1985). Chemical carcinogens: A review of the science and its associated principles. Federal Register, 50, 10372–10442

    Google Scholar 

  • Paustenbach, D. J. (Ed.). (1988). The risk assessment of environmental hazards: A textbook of case studies. New York: Wiley.

    Google Scholar 

  • Renwick, A. G., Dorne, J. L., & Walton, K. (2001). Pathway-related factors: The potential for human data to improve the scientific basis of risk. Human and Ecological Risk Assessment, 7(1), 165–180.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Safe, S. H. (1998). Hazard and risk assessment of chemical mixtures using the toxic equivalency factor approach. Environmental Health Perspectives, 106(Suppl.4), 1051–1058.

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Shields, P. G. (2006). Understanding population and individual risk assessment: The case of polychlorinated biphenyls. Cancer Epidemiology, Biomarkers and Prevention, 15(5), 830–839.

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Smith, R. P. (1992). A primer of environmental toxicology. Philadelphia, PA: Lea & Febiger.

    Google Scholar 

  • Talbot, E. O., & Craun, G. F. (Eds.). (1995). Introduction to environmental epidemiology. Boca Raton, FL: CRC Press.

    Google Scholar 

  • Tan, W. Y. (1991). Stochastic models of carcinogenesis, statistics: Textbooks and monographs, volume 116. New York: Marcel Dekker.

    Google Scholar 

  • Theiss, J. C. (1983). The ranking of chemicals for carcinogenic potency. Regulatory Toxicology and Pharmacology, 3, 320–328.

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Tomatis, L., Huff, J., Hertz-Picciotto, I., Dandler, D., Bucher, J., Boffetta, P., et al. (1997). Avoided and avoidable risks of cancer. Carcinogenesis, 18(1), 97–105.

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • USDHS. (1989). Public Health Service, Fifth Annual Report on Carcinogens, Summary, US Department of Health and Human Services (USDHS). Washington, DC.

    Google Scholar 

  • USEPA. (1984b). Risk assessment and management: Framework for decision making (EPA 600/9-85-002), US Environmental Protection Agency (USEPA), Washington, DC.

    Google Scholar 

  • USEPA. (1985). Principles of risk assessment: A nontechnical review. Office of Policy Analysis, US Environmental Protection Agency (USEPA), Washington, DC.

    Google Scholar 

  • USEPA. (1986a). Ecological risk assessment. Hazard Evaluation Division Standard Evaluation Procedure, Washington, DC.

    Google Scholar 

  • USEPA. (1986b). Guidelines for the health risk assessment of chemical mixtures (EPA/630/R-98/002), Risk Assessment Forum, Office of Research and Development, US Environmental Protection Agency (USEPA), Washington, DC.

    Google Scholar 

  • USEPA. (1986c). Guidelines for carcinogen risk assessment (EPA/630/R-00/004), September 1986. US EPA, Office of Research and Development, National Center for Environmental Assessment, Washington, DC.

    Google Scholar 

  • USEPA. (1986d). Guidelines for mutagenicity risk assessment (EPA/630/R-98/003), Risk Assessment Forum, Office of Research and Development, USEPA, Washington, DC.

    Google Scholar 

  • USEPA. (1986e). Methods for assessing exposure to chemical substances, volume 8: Methods for assessing environmental pathways of food contamination (EPA/560/5-85-008), Exposure Evaluation Division, Office of Toxic Substances, Washington, DC.

    Google Scholar 

  • USEPA. (1986f). Superfund public health evaluation manual (EPA/540/1-86/060), Office of Emergency and Remedial Response, Washington, DC.

    Google Scholar 

  • USEPA. (1989a). Exposure factors handbook (EPA/600/8-89/043), Office of Health and Environmental Assessment, Washington, DC.

    Google Scholar 

  • USEPA. (1989b). Interim methods for development of inhalation reference doses (EPA/600/8-88/066F). Office of Health and Environmental Assessment, Washington, DC.

    Google Scholar 

  • USEPA. (1989c). Interim procedures for estimating risks associated with exposures to mixtures of chlorinated dibenzo-p-dioxins and -dibenzofurans (CDDs and CDFs) (EPA/625/3-89/016), Risk Assessment Forum, Washington, DC.

    Google Scholar 

  • USEPA. (1989d). Methods for evaluating the attainment of cleanup standards. Volume I: Soils and solid media. EPA/230/2-89/042. Office of Policy, Planning and Evaluation, Washington, DC.

    Google Scholar 

  • USEPA. (1989e). Risk assessment guidance for superfund: Volume I--Human health evaluation manual (Part A), EPA/540/1-89/002. Office of Emergency and Remedial Response, Washington, DC.

    Google Scholar 

  • USEPA. (1989f). Risk assessment guidance for superfund. Volume II—Environmental evaluation manual. EPA/540/1-89/001. Office of Emergency and Remedial Response, Washington, DC.

    Google Scholar 

  • USEPA. (1992a). Dermal exposure assessment: Principles and applications. EPA/600/8-91/011B, Office of Health and Environmental Assessment, US EPA, Washington, DC.

    Google Scholar 

  • USEPA. (1992b). Framework for ecological risk assessment. EPA/630/R-92/001, February, 1992, Risk Assessment Forum, Washington, DC.

    Google Scholar 

  • USEPA. (1992c). Guidance for data useability in risk assessment (Parts A & B), Publication No. 9285.7-09A&B, Office of Emergency and Remedial Response, USEPA, Washington, DC.

    Google Scholar 

  • USEPA. (1992d). Guidelines for exposure assessment, EPA/600/Z-92/001, Risk Assessment Forum, Office of Research and Development, Office of Health and Environmental Assessment, USEPA, Washington, DC.

    Google Scholar 

  • USEPA. (1992e). Supplemental guidance to RAGS: Calculating the concentration term. Publication No. 9285.7-08I, Office of Emergency and Remedial Response, USEPA, Washington, DC

    Google Scholar 

  • USEPA. (1993). Supplemental guidance to RAGS: Estimating risk from groundwater contamination. Office of Solid Waste and Emergency Response, USEPA, Washington, DC.

    Google Scholar 

  • USEPA. (1995a). A guide to the biosolids risk assessments for the EPA Part 503 Rule. EPA/832-B-93-005, Office of Wastewater Management, USEPA, Washington, DC.

    Google Scholar 

  • USEPA. (1995b). Ecological risk: A primer for risk managers. EPA/734/R-95/001, Washington, DC.

    Google Scholar 

  • USEPA. (1995c). Guidance for risk characterization. Science Policy Council, USEPA, Washington, DC.

    Google Scholar 

  • USEPA. (1995d). The use of the benchmark dose approach in health risk assessment. EPA/630/R-94/007, Risk Assessment Forum, Office of Research and Development, US Environmental Protection Agency (USEPA), Washington, DC.

    Google Scholar 

  • USEPA. (1995–1996). Guidance for assessing chemical contaminant data for use in fish advisories, Volumes I thru IV. Office of Water, USEPA, Washington, DC.

    Google Scholar 

  • USEPA. (1996a). Guidelines for reproductive toxicity risk assessment. EPA/630-96/009, USEPA, Washington, DC.

    Google Scholar 

  • USEPA. (1996b). Interim approach to assessing risks associated with adult exposures to lead in soil. US Environmental Protection Agency (USEPA), Washington, DC.

    Google Scholar 

  • USEPA. (1996c). PCBs: Cancer dose-response assessment and application to environmental mixtures. EPA/600/P-96/001F, September 1996, National Center for Environmental Assessment, Office of Research and Development, U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, Washington, DC.

    Google Scholar 

  • USEPA. (1996d). Radiation exposure and risk assessment manual. EPA 402-R-96-016, US Environmental Protection Agency (USEPA), Washington, DC.

    Google Scholar 

  • USEPA. (1996e). Soil screening guidance: Technical background document, EPA/540/R-95/128. Office of Emergency and Remedial Response, Washington, DC.

    Google Scholar 

  • USEPA. (1996f). Soil screening guidance: User’s Guide, EPA/540/R-96/018. Office of Emergency and Remedial Response, Washington, DC.

    Google Scholar 

  • USEPA. (2002c). Risk assessment guidance for superfund, Volume I: Human health evaluation manual (Part E, Supplemental Guidance for Dermal Risk Assessment). EPA/540/R/99/005, Office of Emergency and Remedial Response, USEPA, Washington, DC.

    Google Scholar 

  • USEPA. (2004a). Community air screening how-to manual. A step-by-step guide to using risk-based screening to identify priorities for improving outdoor air quality. EPA 744-B-04-001. U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, Washington, DC.

    Google Scholar 

  • USEPA. (2005a). Guidelines for Carcinogen risk assessment. EPA/630/P-03/001B, March 2005. US EPA, Office of Research and Development, National Center for Environmental Assessment, Washington, DC.

    Google Scholar 

  • USEPA. (2005b). Supplemental guidance for assessing susceptibility from early-life exposure to carcinogens. EPA/630/R-03/003F, March 2005. US EPA, Office of Research and Development, National Center for Environmental Assessment, Washington, DC.

    Google Scholar 

  • USEPA. (2005c). Guidance on selecting age groups for monitoring and assessing childhood exposures to environmental contaminants. Risk Assessment Forum, Washington, DC. EPA/630/P-03/003F.

    Google Scholar 

  • USEPA. (2005d). Contaminated sediment remediation guidance for hazardous waste sites. OSWER 9355.0-85. EPA-540-R-05-012. US Environmental Protection Agency, Office of Solid Waste and Emergency Response Washington, DC.

    Google Scholar 

  • USEPA. (2010a). Quantitative health risk assessment for particulate matter. EPA-452/R-10-005. US EPA, Research Triangle Park, NC.

    Google Scholar 

  • USEPA. (2010b). Recommended toxicity equivalence factors (TEFs) for human health risk assessments of 2,3,7,8-Tetrachlorodibenzo-p-dioxin and Dioxin-like compounds. Risk Assessment Forum, Washington, DC. EPA/600/R-10/005.

    Google Scholar 

  • USEPA. (2012). Benchmark dose technical guidance, EPA/100/R-12/001, Risk Assessment Forum , U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, Washington, DC.

    Google Scholar 

  • van den Berg, M., Sinnige, T. L., Tysklind, M., et al. (1995). Individual PCBs as predictors for concentrations of non and mono-ortho PCBs in human milk. Environmental Science and Pollution, 2(2), 73–82.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • van Leeuwen, C. J., & Hermens, J. L. M. (Eds.). (1995). Risk assessment of chemicals: An introduction. Dordrecht, The Netherlands: Kluwer Academic Publishers.

    Google Scholar 

  • Wheeler, M. W., & Bailer, A. J. (2007). Properties of model-averaged BMDLs: A study of model averaging in dichotomous response risk estimation. Risk Analysis, 27, 659–670.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Wheeler, M. W., & Bailer, A. J. (2009). Comparing model averaging with other model selection strategies for benchmark dose estimation. Environmental and Ecological Statistics, 16, 37–51.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • WHO. (2010a). WHO human health risk assessment toolkit: chemical hazards, IPCS Harmonization Project Document No. 8, The International Programme on Chemical Safety (IPCS), WHO Press, World Health Organization, Geneva, Switzerland

    Google Scholar 

  • WHO. (2010b). Characterization and application of physiologically based pharmacokinetic models in risk assessment. IPCS Harmonization Project Document No. 9, The International Programme on Chemical Safety (IPCS), WHO Press, World Health Organization, Geneva, Switzerland.

    Google Scholar 

  • Wilson, J. D. (1996). Threshold for carcinogens: a review of the relevant science and its implications for regulatory policy. Discussion Paper No. 96-21, Resources for the Future, Washington, DC.

    Google Scholar 

  • Wilson, J. D. (1997). So carcinogens have thresholds: How do we decide what exposure levels should be considered safe? Risk Analysis, 17(1), 1–3.

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • OTA (Office of Technology Assessment). (1981). Assessment of technologies for determining cancer risks from the environment. Washington, DC: Office of Technology Assessment.

    Google Scholar 

  • IARC (International Agency for Research on Cancer). (2006). IARC Monographs on the evaluation of the carcinogenic risk of chemicals to man, (Multi-volume work). Geneva, Switzerland: International Agency for Research on Cancer (IARC), World Health Organization.

    Google Scholar 

  • USDHS. (2002). Report on carcinogens (10th ed.). US Department of Health and Human Services, Public Health Service, National Toxicology Program, December 2002

    Google Scholar 

  • Van den Berg, M., Birnbaum, L. S., Denison, M., et al. (2006). The 2005 World Health Organization re-evaluation of human and mammalian toxic equivalency factors for dioxins and dioxin-like compounds. Toxicological Sciences, 93(2), 223–241.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Ames, B. N., Magaw, R., & Gold, L. S. (1987). Ranking possible carcinogenic hazards. Science, 236, 271–280.

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • USEPA. (2000a). Soil screening guidance for radionuclides: User’s guide, EPA/540-R-00-007, Office of Radiation and Indoor Air, US Environmental Protection Agency, Washington, DC.

    Google Scholar 

  • USEPA. (2000b). Supplementary guidance for conducting health risk assessment of chemical mixtures. U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, Washington, DC. EPA/630/R-00/002. August

    Google Scholar 

  • USEPA. (2002a). Risk assessment guidance for superfund, Volume I: Human health evaluation manual (Part E, supplemental guidance for dermal risk assessment), EPA/540/R/99/005, Office of Emergency and Remedial Response, USEPA, Washington, DC.

    Google Scholar 

Download references

Author information

Authors and Affiliations

  1. Human Health Risk Assessment Practice, Washington, DC, USA

    Kofi Asante-Duah (Scientific Advisor/Environmental Consultant)

Authors
  1. Kofi Asante-Duah
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

Rights and permissions

Reprints and permissions

Copyright information

© 2017 Springer Science+Business Media B.V.

About this chapter

Cite this chapter

Asante-Duah, K. (2017). Determination of Chemical Toxicity. In: Public Health Risk Assessment for Human Exposure to Chemicals. Environmental Pollution, vol 27. Springer, Dordrecht. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-94-024-1039-6_10

Download citation

Publish with us

Policies and ethics

Search

Navigation