Abstract
Biofuels are fuels produced from biomass, mostly in liquid form, within a time frame sufficiently short to consider that their feedstock (biomass) can be renewed, contrarily to fossil fuels. This paper reviews the current and future biofuel technologies, and their development impacts (including on the climate) within given policy and economic frameworks. Current technologies make it possible to provide first generation biodiesel, ethanol or biogas to the transport sector to be blended with fossil fuels. Still under-development 2nd generation biofuels from lignocellulose should be available on the market by 2020. Research is active on the improvement of their conversion efficiency. A ten-fold increase compared with current cost-effective capacities would make them highly competitive. Within bioenergy policies, emphasis has been put on biofuels for transportation as this sector is fast-growing and represents a major source of anthropogenic greenhouse gas emissions. Compared with fossil fuels, biofuel combustion can emit less greenhouse gases throughout their life cycle, considering that part of the emitted CO2 returns to the atmosphere where it was fixed from by photosynthesis in the first place. Life cycle assessment (LCA) is commonly used to assess the potential environmental impacts of biofuel chains, notably the impact on global warming. This tool, whose holistic nature is fundamental to avoid pollution trade-offs, is a standardised methodology that should make comparisons between biofuel and fossil fuel chains objective and thorough. However, it is a complex and time-consuming process, which requires lots of data, and whose methodology is still lacking harmonisation. Hence the life-cycle performances of biofuel chains vary widely in the** literature. Furthermore, LCA is a site- and time-independent tool that cannot take into account the spatial and temporal dimensions of emissions, and can hardly serve as a decision-making tool either at local or regional levels. Focusing on greenhouse gases, emission factors used in LCAs give a rough estimate of the potential average emissions on a national level. However, they do not take into account the types of crop, soil or management practices, for instance. Modelling the impact of local factors on the determinism of greenhouse gas emissions can provide better estimates for LCA on the local level, which would be the relevant scale and degree of reliability for decision-making purposes. Nevertheless, a deeper understanding of the processes involved, most notably N2O emissions, is still needed to definitely improve the accuracy of LCA. Perennial crops are a promising option for biofuels, due to their rapid and efficient use of nitrogen, and their limited farming operations. However, the main overall limiting factor to biofuel development will ultimately be land availability. Given the available land areas, population growth rate and consumption behaviours, it would be possible to reach by 2030 a global 10% biofuel share in the transport sector, contributing to lower global greenhouse gas emissions by up to 1 GtCO2 eq per year (IEA, 2006), provided that harmonised policies ensure that sustainability criteria for the production systems are respected worldwide. Furthermore, policies should also be more integrative across sectors, so that changes in energy efficiency, the automotive sector and global consumption patterns converge towards drastic reduction of the pressure on resources. Indeed, neither biofuels nor other energy source or carriers are likely to mitigate the impacts of anthropogenic pressure on resources in a range that would compensate for this pressure growth. Hence, the first step is to reduce this pressure by starting from the variable that drives it up, i.e. anthropic consumptions.
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Notes
- 1.
Mtoe yr − 1: million ton oil equivalent: IEA conversion factor used throughout the article: \(1\ \mathrm{Mtoe}\ {\mathrm{yr}}^{-1} = 4.1868\, \times \, 1{0}^{4}\ \mathrm{TJ}\). Selected units for the article are Joules; however, conversions are indicated in brackets when quoted figures are given in other units.
- 2.
Thus the prefix “bio” has nothing to do with the organic production label called “BIO” in France or Germany, for instance, which actually corresponds to specific management guidelines for agricultural production that aim at minimising the harmful impacts on the environment.
- 3.
Other autotrophic processes than photosynthesis exist when enlacing the whole biosphere, but they are less relevant in quantitative terms when focusing on bioenergy.
- 4.
Based on the pillars of sustainability concept in the Brundland report, 1987.
- 5.
Sulphur oxides (SOx) contribute to acid rain and can be carcinogenic.
- 6.
NOx are precursors to the formation of tropospheric ozone.
- 7.
Gasoline high octane value indicates a smaller likelihood that the fuel combusts too soon (low auto-ignite tendency), provoking engine knock problems. A high tendency to auto-ignite, or low octane rating, is undesirable in a spark ignition engine (gasoline) but desirable in a diesel engine (high cetane number).
- 8.
Brazilian Petroleum, Natural Gas and Biofuels Agency.
- 9.
Comité Européen de Normalisation.
- 10.
http://www.planete-energies.com (consulted on 10.03.2008).
- 11.
- 12.
Biodiesel here does not take into consideration pure vegetable oils mostly directly consumed by farmers on the farm.
- 13.
Christoph Berg is Managing Director at the commodity analysts F.O. Licht. F.O. Licht monitors the global soft commodity markets.
- 14.
Speech at the Platts Cellulosic Ethanol Conference in Chicago on October 31, 2006.
- 15.
By default examining greenhouse gas emissions includes “six” gases: CO2, CH4, N2O, SF6, PFCs and FCs.
- 16.
Pre-industrial concentrations/in 2005: CO2 (280/379 ppm); N2O (270/319 ppb); CH4 (715/1774 ppb), IPCC, 2007.
- 17.
SRES: special report on emission scenarios IPCC.
- 18.
Sea ice melting does not directly cause sea level rise like ice on continents; however, it can lead to the extinction of species that rely on these relatively scarce habitats. It also contributes to ocean thermal expansion.
- 19.
Model developed by the Japanese energy economist Yoichi Kaya in Environment, energy, and economy: strategies for sustainability, co-authored with Keiichi Yokobori as the output of the 1993 Tokyo Conference on Global Environment.
- 20.
The transport sector presented here consists of road transportation, domestic civil aviation, railways, national navigation and other transportation. It excludes emissions from international aviation and maritime transport (which are not covered by the Kyoto Protocol or current EU policies and measures). Road transport is by far the biggest transport emission source.
- 21.
Minimum indicative targets from the European Council Directive 2003/30/EC of 8 May 2003: 2% in 2005 and 5.75% in 2010 share of biofuels of all petrol and diesel for transport purposes placed on the market calculated on the basis of the energy content. (about 3% and 8.6% for ethanol; 2.2% and 6.4% for biodiesel when calculated on a volume basis).
- 22.
Based on the low calorific values.
- 23.
Methyl tertiary butyl ether: fossil oxigenate additive to gasoline.
- 24.
Contamination of groundwater by MTBE due to leaking tanks is especially severe in the US. Despite the decision to phase it out, the quantities of MTBE used in the US have not decreased due to its technical advantages that actually help to produce a cleaner burning gasoline (http://www.acfa.org).
- 25.
http://www.worldwatch.org (25/04/2008).
- 26.
- 27.
Mean annual foreign exchange rates from the US Board of Governors of the Federal Reserve System annual databases.
- 28.
- 29.
European Commission Press releases, IP/06/1243, Brussels, 22 September 2006.
- 30.
URAA, Uruguay Round Agreement on Agriculture in Marrakech, 1994.
- 31.
Communication of Charles E. Hanrahan, Senior Specialist at the Library of Congress in Washington, on 01/2008 at the Agroparistech.
- 32.
By BUWAL, Bundesamt für Umwelt, Wald und Landschaft (Swiss federal office) and SETAC, Society of Environmental Toxicology and Chemistry (international scientific society).
- 33.
ISO 14040:2006 and ISO 14044:2006 replace the previous standards (ISO 14040:1997, ISO 14041:1999, ISO 14042:2000 and ISO 14043:2000). The new editions have been updated to improve the readability, while leaving the requirements and technical content unaffected, except for errors and inconsistencies.
- 34.
MJ of ETBE are produced from “1 MJ of ethanol and 2 MJ of isobutylene”.
- 35.
Weighting and normalisation are two non-mandatory steps in LCA methodology.
- 36.
These shares are followed in the report by the mention “medium agreement, medium evidence”, and the same for the balanced CO2 net flux by agricultural soils “low agreement, limited evidence”.
- 37.
The remaining 6% of agricultural greenhouse gases by subsector are undifferentiated sources of CH4 and N2O.
- 38.
As written by the authors Baumert et al., 2005, p. 91.
- 39.
Nr means reactive nitrogen compounds, i.e. all inorganic and organic N compounds except N2, that is a non-reactive N compound.
- 40.
The former GWP in the second IPCC assessment report was 310 eq CO2 per kg, 298 includes the indirect negative radiative forcing due to the destruction of stratospheric ozone.
- 41.
Radiative forcing (W. m − 2), or global warming potential, refers to the change in the radiative balance on Earth’s surface that is normally ensured by the natural greenhouse effect whose dominant contributing gases are water vapour (60–70% in Duxbury and Mosier, 1993), CO2 (25% in Duxbury and Mosier, 1993) and O3. A positive radiative forcing (warming) occurs when the concentration of greenhouse gases increases; a negative radiative forcing (cooling) when precursors that lead to the destruction of greenhouse gases are released into the atmosphere. Halocarbons are also main contributors to radiative forcing to an extent similar to that of tropospheric ozone (Forster et al., 2007). They are not mentioned amongst the first single contributors though, because they encompass several gas contributors.
- 42.
- 43.
Soil humidity favours denitrification up to N2O reduction, while NO3 − is preferred as an electron acceptor over N2O (Granli and Bøckman, 1994).
- 44.
Bange emphasised that estimates used in global budgets are out of date. Moreover, due to increased release of anthropogenic Nr into the ocean, N2O emissions by marine microorganisms could increase up to 1. 6 MtN{ -}N2O per year (in Galloway et al., 2008).
- 45.
Climate, crop type, fertiliser type, application rate, mode and timing of application, soil organic C and N content, soil pH, soil texture and drainage, measurement technique, frequency of measurements, length of measurement period. This analysis does not include organic soils; neither did the one from Mosier et al. (1996). Organic soils are considered in the IPCC guidelines. They appear to be a great source of N2O, because of high soil organic content and low drainage, which implies reducing conditions (IPCC, 2006). Total areas of organic soils (histosols) ∼ 1. 2% of ice-free land area (online 03.02.2009: http://soils.ag.uidaho.edu/soilorders/histosols.htm).
- 46.
Data for fertilisation IFA/IFDC/FAO (1999), land-use in FAO, 2001.
- 47.
Symbiotic rhizobia in root nodules are able to denitrify. This can lead to N2O emissions, possibly 4 kg N. ha − 1 for improved pastures; legumes could increase N2O emission two- to three-fold compared with unfertilised fields in Mosier et al. (1996). This denitrification by rhizobia could also lead to net N2O consumption depending on local factors.
- 48.
Concentrated animal feeding operations.
- 49.
Mean value of the 4 straw restitution treatments (Thomsen and Christensen, 2004).
- 50.
WRI: Guide to World Resources 2000–2001: People and Ecosystems: The Fraying Web of Life, Elsevier, New York, 2002.
- 51.
Dr. Emily Boyd, 25/11/2005, http://www.scidev.net/en/opinions/emissions-trading-cannot-solve-amazon-deforestatio.html.
- 52.
Mitigation potentials for CO2 represent the net change in soil carbon pools which were derived from about 200 studies; the emission ranges for CH4 and N2O were derived using the DAYCENT and DNDC simulation models. All estimated potentials are followed by the mention medium agreement, low evidence.
- 53.
About 20% of 1990s global greenhouse gas emissions, or 5%, 9% and 14% for the three different economic potentials.
- 54.
Notably from SOC sequestration due to restoration of organic soils; 9% CH4, 2% N2O.
- 55.
Nitrogen efficiency measured as the percentage ratio of total nitrogen uptake by plants and forage (tonnes) over the total nitrogen available from fertiliser, livestock manure and other nitrogen inputs (tonnes).
- 56.
Through mineralisation N is made available for the plants, through immobilisation/organisation N is consumed for the development of the microorganisms.
- 57.
Easily mineralisable N is usually more abundant in fresh green material than in straw (Velthof et al., 2002).
- 58.
Feed conversion efficiency is defined as the amount of animal product produced per amount of animal feed input.
- 59.
EOF encompasses organic farming and high natural value farming (NHV).
- 60.
Quoted as written in the study: related to the overall value judgements in the study that limit the available potential including strict environmental assumptions.
- 61.
“Environmentally-compatible” bioenergy potential = the quantity of primary biomass that is technically available for energy generation based on the assumption that no additional pressures on biodiversity, soil and water resources are exerted compared with a development without increased bioenergy production (EEA, 2006b).
- 62.
Assumed yield increases: 1% per year for conventional arable crops, 1–2.5% for dedicated energy crops. A lower yield increase of 1% for all crops would reduce the bioenergy potential by 2% in 2010, and by 13% in 2030.
- 63.
- 64.
i.e. 20% around the annual mean price.
- 65.
The Schumpeterian vision of technology advances that evolve by plateaus punctuated by radical breakthroughs.
- 66.
Dr. Emily Boyd, 25/11/2005 http://www.scidev.net/en/opinions/emissions-trading-cannot-solve-amazon-deforestatio.html.
- 67.
Personal communication by Dane Colbert, Director of Ethanol Union, 30/10/2008.
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Bessou, C., Ferchaud, F., Gabrielle, B., Mary, B. (2011). Biofuels, Greenhouse Gases and Climate Change. In: Lichtfouse, E., Hamelin, M., Navarrete, M., Debaeke, P. (eds) Sustainable Agriculture Volume 2. Springer, Dordrecht. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-94-007-0394-0_20
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