Skip to main content
SpringerLink
Log in

Novel Approaches for the Management of Mealybug Pests

  • Chapter
  • First Online:
Biorational Control of Arthropod Pests

Abstract

Mealybugs (Hemiptera: Pseudococcidae) are small, soft-bodied plant sap-sucking insects that constitute the second largest family of scale insects (Hemiptera: Coccoidea), with more than 2,000 described species and ca. 290 genera (Ben-Dov 2006; Downie and Gullan 2004). Their common name is derived from the mealy wax secretion that usually covers their bodies (Kosztarab 1996). A recent phylogenetic study, based on analysis of nucleotide sequence data, supported the existence of three subfamilies Pseudococcinae, Phenacoccinae and Rhizoecinae (Downie and Gullan 2005). This estimate was recently revised in light of integrated molecular and morphological data, and only two subfamilies emerged: Pseudococcinae and Phenacoccinae (Hardy et al. 2008). Mealybugs are severe agricultural pests. According to Miller et al. (2002), 158 species of mealybugs are recognized as pests worldwide. These species most frequently originate from the Palearctic region (ca. 29%), followed by the Nearctic (17%), Neotropical (16%), Oriental (15%), Afrotropical (12%) and Australasian (11%) regions. Approximately 22% of the mealybug pests are polyphagous, 20% occur on grasses (e.g., sugar cane), 16% on citrus and tropical fruits, and 6% on coffee.

This is a preview of subscription content, log in via an institution to check access.

Access this chapter

Log in via an institution
Chapter
USD 29.95
Price excludes VAT (USA)
  • Available as PDF
  • Read on any device
  • Instant download
  • Own it forever
eBook
USD 169.00
Price excludes VAT (USA)
  • Available as EPUB and PDF
  • Read on any device
  • Instant download
  • Own it forever
Softcover Book
USD 219.99
Price excludes VAT (USA)
  • Compact, lightweight edition
  • Dispatched in 3 to 5 business days
  • Free shipping worldwide - see info
Hardcover Book
USD 219.99
Price excludes VAT (USA)
  • Durable hardcover edition
  • Dispatched in 3 to 5 business days
  • Free shipping worldwide - see info

Tax calculation will be finalised at checkout

Purchases are for personal use only

Institutional subscriptions

References

  • Abo ME, Sy AA (1998) Rice virus diseases: epidemiology and management strategies. J Sust Agric 11:113–134

    Google Scholar 

  • Addison P (2002) Chemical stem barriers for the control of ants (Hymenoptera: Formicidae) in vineyards. S Afr J Enolo Vitic 23:1–8

    CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Afifi SA (1968) Morphology and taxonomy of the adult males of the families Pseudococcidae and Eriococcidae (Homoptera: Coccoidea). Bull Brit Mus (Nat Hist) Entomol Suppl 13:1–210.

    Google Scholar 

  • Allsopp PG (1991) Binomial sequential sampling of adult Saccharicoccus sacchari on sugarcane. Entomol Exp Appl 60:213–218

    Google Scholar 

  • Anand P, Ayub K (2000) The effect of five insecticides on Maconellicoccus hirsutus (Green) (Homoptera: Pseudococcidae) and its natural enemies Anagyrus kamali Moursi (Hymenoptera: Encyrtidae), and Cryptolaemus montrouzieri Mulsant and Scymnus coccivora Aiyar (Coleoptera: Coccinellidae). Int Pest Cont 42:170–173

    Google Scholar 

  • Arai T (2002) Attractiveness of sex pheromone of Pseudococcus cryptus Hempel (Homoptera: Pseudococcidae) to adult males in a citrus orchard. Appl Entomol Zool 37: 69–72

    Google Scholar 

  • Arai T, Sugie H, Hiradate S, Kuwahara S, Itagaki N, Nakahata T (2003) Identification of a sex pheromone component of Pseudococcus cryptus. J Chem Ecol 29:2213–2223

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Avidov Z, Harpaz I (1969) Plant pests of Israel. Israel Universities Press, Jerusalem, 549 pp.

    Google Scholar 

  • Babu TR, Ramanamurthy G (1998) Residual toxicity of pesticides to the adults of Scymnus coccivora Aiyar (Coccinellidae: Coleoptera) a predator on mealybugs on grape. Ind J Plant Prot 26:96–98

    Google Scholar 

  • Baeckstroem P, Li L (1990) A one pot procedure for the deoxygenation of α,β-unsaturated ketones and a synthesis of the mealybug pheromone. Synth Commun 20:1481–1485

    CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Baeckstrom P, Bjorkling F, Hogberg HE, Norin T (1984) Cross-coupling of vinyl cuprates and allylic halides and synthesis of the Comstock mealybug pheromone via photooxidation of 2,6-dimethyl-2,5-heptadiene. Acta Chem Scand B 38:779–782

    Google Scholar 

  • Baumann P (2005) Biology of bacteriocyte-associated endosymbionts of plant sap-sucking insects. Annu Rev Microbiol 59:155–189

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Bell VA, Walker JTS, Suckling DM, Manning LA, El-Sayed AM, Shaw PW, Wallis DR, Millar JG (2006) Trapping obscure mealybug (Pseudococcus viburni) and its natural enemy Pseudaphycus maculipennis (Hymenoptera: Encyrtidae) in apple orchards. N Zeal Plant Prot 59:364 (Abstract)

    Google Scholar 

  • Bell VA, Suckling DM, Walker JTS, Millar JG, Manning LA, El-Sayed AM (2008) Obscure mealybug pheromone is the kairomone of an introduced parasitoid in New Zealand. Proc XXIII Int Cong Entomol, 6–12 July 2008, Durban (Abstract). Available at

    Google Scholar 

  • Ben-Dov Y (1994) A systematic catalogue of the mealybugs of the world (Insecta: Homptera: Coccoidea: Pseudoccocidae and Putoidae) with data on their geographical distribution, host plants, biology and economic importance. Intercept, Andover

    Google Scholar 

  • Ben-Dov Y (2005a) The malvastrum mealybug Ferrisia malvastra (Hemiptera: Coccoidea: Pseudococcidae): Distribution, host plants and pest status in Israel. Phytoparasitica 33:154–156

    Google Scholar 

  • Ben-Dov Y (2005b) The solanum mealybug, Phenacoccus solani Ferris (Hemiptera: Coccoidea: Pseudococcidae), extends its distribution range in the Mediterranean basin. Phytoparasitica 33:15–16

    Google Scholar 

  • Ben-Dov Y (2006) Scales in a family/genus query. Available at http://www.sel.barc.usda.gov/scalecgi/chklist.exe?Family=Pseudococcidae&genus=Accessed 14 August 2008

  • Berlinger MJ, Golberg AM (1978) Effect of the fruit sepals on the citrus mealybug population and on its parasite. Entomol Exp Appl 24:238–243

    Google Scholar 

  • Bhat AI, Devasahayam S, Sarma YR, Pant RP (2003) Association of a badnavirus in black pepper (Piper nigrum L) transmitted by mealybug (Ferrisia virgata) in India. Curr Sci 84:1547–1550

    Google Scholar 

  • Bierl-Leonhardt BA, Moreno DS, Schwarz M, Forster HS, Plimmer JR, Devilbiss ED (1980) Identification of the pheromone of the comstock mealybug. Life Sci 27:399–402

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Bierl-Leonhardt BA, Moreno DS, Schwarz M, Fargerlund J, Plimmer JR (1981) Isolation, identification and synthesis of the sex-pheromone of the citrus mealybug, Planococcus citri (Risso). Tetrahedron Lett 22:389–392

    CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Bierl-Leonhardt BA, Moreno DS, Schwarz M, Forster HS, Plimmer JR, Devilbiss ED (1982) Isolation, identification, synthesis, and bioassay of the pheromone of the comstock mealybug and some analogs. J Chem Ecol 8:689–699

    CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Blumberg D (1997) Parasitoid encapsulation as a defense mechanism in the Coccoidea (Homoptera) and its importance in biological control. Biol Cont 8:225–236

    Google Scholar 

  • Blumberg D, van Driesche RG (2001) Encapsulation rates of three encyrtid parasitoids by three mealybug species (Homoptera: Pseudococcidae) found commonly as pests in commercial greenhouses. Biol Cont 22:191–199

    Google Scholar 

  • Blumberg D, Klein M, Mendel Z (1995) Response by encapsulation of 4 mealybug species (Homoptera, Pseudococcidae) to parasitization by Anagyrus pseudococci. Phytoparasitica 23:157–163

    Google Scholar 

  • Blumberg D, Ben-Dov Y, Mendel Z (1999) The citriculus mealybug, Pseudococcus cryptus Hempel, and its natural enemies in Israel: history and present situation. Entomologica, Bari 33:233–242

    Google Scholar 

  • Blumberg D, Franco JC, Suma P, Russo A, Mendel Z (2001) Parasitoid encapsulation in mealybugs (Hemiptera: Pseudococcidae) as affected by the host-parasitoid association and superparasitism. Boll Zool Agr Bachicolt 33:385–395

    Google Scholar 

  • Boavida C, Neuenschwander P (1995) Influence of host–plant on the mango mealybug, Rastrococcus invadens. Entomol Exp Appl 76:179–188

    Google Scholar 

  • Bokonon-Ganta AH, de Groote H, Neuenschwander P (2002) Socio-economic impact of biological control of mango mealybug in Benin. Agric Ecosyst Environ 93:367–378

    Google Scholar 

  • Bongiorni S, Mazzuoli M, Masci S, Prantera G (2001) Facultative heterochromatization in parahaploid male mealybugs: involvement of a heterochromatin-associated protein. Development 128:3809–3817

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Branco M, Jactel H, Franco JC, Mendel Z (2006) Modelling response of insect trap captures to pheromone dose. Ecol Mod 197:247–257

    Google Scholar 

  • Browning HW (1994) Early classical biological control on citrus. In: Rosen D, Bennett FD, Capinera JL (eds) Pest management in the subtropics: biological control – a Florida perspective. Intercept, Andover

    Google Scholar 

  • Cabaleiro C, Segura A (1997a) Field transmission of grapevine leafroll associated virus 3 (GLRaV-3) by the mealybug Planococcus citri. Plant Dis 81:283–287

    Google Scholar 

  • Cabaleiro C, Segura A (1997b) Some characteristics of the transmission of grapevine leafroll associated virus 3 by Planococcus citri Risso. Eur J Plant Pathol 103:373–378

    CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Calatayud PA, Rahbe Y, Delobel B, Khuonghuu F, Tertuliano M, Leru B (1994a) Influence of secondary compounds in the phloem sap of cassava on expression of antibiosis towards the mealybug Phenacoccus manihoti. Entomol Exp Appl 72:47–57

    CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Calatayud PA, Tertuliano M, Leru B (1994b) Seasonal changes in secondary compounds in the phloem sap of cassava in relation to plant genotype and infestation by Phenacoccus manihoti (Homoptera, Pseudococcidae). Bull Entomol Res 84:453–459

    Google Scholar 

  • Calatayud PA, Polania MA, Seligmann CD, Bellotti AC (2002) Influence of water-stressed cassava on Phenacoccus herreni and three associated parasitoids. Entomol Exp Appl 102:163–175

    Google Scholar 

  • Carlsen PHJ, Odden W (1984) Synthesis of the female sex pheromone of the citrus mealybug, Planoccus citri (Risso). Acta Chem Scand B 38:501–504

    Google Scholar 

  • Charles JG (1993) A survey of mealybugs and their natural enemies in horticultural crops in North Island, New Zealand, with implications for biological control. Biocont Sci Technol 3:405–418

    Google Scholar 

  • Charles JG, Cohen D, Walker JTS, Forgie SA, Bell VA, Breen KC (2006) A review of grapevine leafroll associated virus type 3 (GLRaV-3) for the New Zealand wine industry. The Horticulture and Food Research Institute of New Zealand Ltd, Auckland

    Google Scholar 

  • Chibiryaev A, Rukavishnikov AV, Tkachev AV, Volodarskii LB (1991) New synthesis of the sex pheromone of the mealy bug Planococcus citri from α -pinene. Zh Org Khim 27:1209–1213

    CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Chong JH, Oetting RD (2006) Influence of temperature and mating status on the development and fecundity of the mealybug parasitoid, Anagyrus sp nov nr sinope Noyes and Menezes (Hymenoptera: Encyrtidae). Environ Entomol 35:1188–1197

    Google Scholar 

  • Chong JH, Oetting RD (2007a) Intraguild predation and interference by the mealybug predator Cryptolalemus montrouzieri on the parasitoid Leptomastix dactylopii. Biocont Sci Technol 17:933–944

    Google Scholar 

  • Chong JH, Oetting RD (2007b) Specificity of Anagyrus sp nov nr. sinope and Leptomastix dactylopii for six mealybug species. Biocontrol 52:289–308

    Google Scholar 

  • Chong JH, van Iersel MW, Oetting RD (2004) Effects of elevated carbon dioxide levels and temperature on the life history of the Madeira mealybug (Hemiptera: Pseudococcidae). J Entomol Sci 39:387–397

    Google Scholar 

  • Chong JH, Oetting RD, Osborne LS (2005) Development of Diomus austrinus Gordon (Coleoptera: Coccinellidae) on two mealybug prey species at five constant temperatures. Biol Cont 33:39–48

    Google Scholar 

  • Cid M, Pereira S, Cabaleiro C, Faoro F, Segura A (2007) Presence of Grapevine leafroll-associated virus 3 in primary salivary glands of the mealybug vector Planococcus citri suggests a circulative transmission mechanism. Eur J Plant Pathol 118:23–30

    CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Cloyd RA, Dickinson A (2006) Effect of Insecticides on Mealybug Destroyer (Coleoptera: Coccinellidae) and Parasitoid Leptomastix dactylopii (Hymenoptera: Encyrtidae), Natural Enemies of Citrus Mealybug (Homoptera: Pseudococcidae). J Econ Entomol 99:1596–1604

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Copland MJW, Tingle CCD, Saynor M, Panis A (1985). Biology of glasshouse mealybugs and their predators and parasitoids. In: Hussey, NW, Scopes N (eds) Biological pest control: the glasshouse experience. Blandford Press, Poole, UK.

    Google Scholar 

  • Cox J (1989) The mealybug genus Planococcus (Homoptera: Pseudococcidae). Bull Br Mus Nat Hist (Entomol) 58:1–78

    Google Scholar 

  • Cox JM, Pearce MJ (1983) Wax produced by dermal pores in three species of mealybug (Homoptera, Pseudococcidae). Intl J Ins Morph Embryol 12:235–248

    Google Scholar 

  • Cranshaw W, Jevremovic Z, Sclar DC, Mannix L (2000) Observations on the biology and control of the hawthorn (two-circuli) mealybug, Phenacoccus dearnessi (King). J Arboricult 26:225–229

    Google Scholar 

  • Cudjoe AR, Neuenschwander P, Copland MJW (1993) Interference by ants in biological control of the cassava mealybug Phenacoccus manihoti (Hemiptera, Pseudococcidae) in Ghana. Bull Entomol Res 83:15–22

    Google Scholar 

  • Daane KM, Malakar-Kuenen RD, Walton VM (2004) Temperature-dependent development of Anagyrus pseudococci (Hymenoptera: Encyrtidae) as a parasitoid of the vine mealybug, Planococcus ficus (Homoptera: Pseudococcidae). Biol Cont 31:123–132

    Google Scholar 

  • Daane KM, Bentley WJ, Walton VM, Malakar-Kuenen R, Millar JG, Ingels CA, Weber EA, Gispert C (2006a) New controls investigated for vine mealybug. Calif Agric 60:31–38

    Google Scholar 

  • Daane KM, Sime KR, Hogg BN, Bianchi ML, Cooper ML, Rust MK, Klotz JH (2006b) Effects of liquid insecticide baits on Argentine ants in California’s coastal vineyards. Crop Prot 25:592–603

    CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Daane KM, Sime KR, Fallon J, Cooper ML (2007) Impacts of Argentine ants on mealybugs and their natural enemies in California’s coastal vineyards. Ecol Entomol 32:583–596

    Google Scholar 

  • Davies AP, Ceballo FA, Walter GH (2004) Is the potential of Coccidoxenoides perminutus, a mealybug parasitoid, limited by climatic or nutritional factors? Biol Cont 31:181–188

    Google Scholar 

  • Debarro PJ (1991) Sampling strategies for above and below ground populations of Saccharicoccus sacchari (Cockerell) (Hemiptera, Pseudococcidae) on sugarcane. J Austral Entomol Soc 30:19–20

    Google Scholar 

  • de Souza JC, Reis PR, Ribeiro JA, Santa Cecília LVC, Silva RA (2007) Chemical control of the coffee root mealybug Dysmicoccus texensis (Tinsley, 1900) in coffee plants (Coffea arabica L). Coffee Sci 2:29–37.

    Google Scholar 

  • Degen AA, Gersani M (1989) Environmental effects on activity and honeydew collection by the weaver ant Polyrhachis simplex (Hymenoptera, Formicidae) when attending the mealybug Trabutina sp (Homoptera, Pseudococcidae). J Zool 218:421–432

    Google Scholar 

  • Delalibera I, Humber RA, Bento JMS, DeMatos AP (1997) First record of the entomopathogenic fungus Neozygites fumosa on the cassava mealybug Phenacoccus herreni. J Invert Pathol 69:276–278

    Google Scholar 

  • Downie DA, Gullan PJ (2004) Phylogenetic analysis of mealybugs (Hemiptera: Coccoidea: Pseudococcidae) based on DNA sequences from three nuclear genes, and a review of the higher classification. Syst Entomol 29:238–259

    Google Scholar 

  • Downie DA, Gullan PJ (2005) Phylogenetic congruence of mealybugs and their primary endosymbionts. J Evolut Biol 18:315–324

    CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Duelli P (1985) A new functional interpretation of the visual system of male scale insects (Coccida, Homoptera). Experientia 41:1036

    Google Scholar 

  • Dufour B (1991) Place and importance of different insect species in the ecology of Cssv (Cocoa swollen shoot virus) in Togo. Café Cacao Thé 35:197–204

    Google Scholar 

  • Dunkelblum E (1999) Scale insects. In: Hardie J, Minks AK (eds) Pheromone of non-lepidopteran insects associated with agricultural plants. CABI, Wallingford.

    Google Scholar 

  • Dunkelblum E, Ben-Dov Y, Goldschmidt Z, Wolk JL, Somekh L (1987) Synthesis and field bioassay of some analogs of sex pheromone of citrus mealybug, Planococcus citri (Risso). J Chem Ecol 13:863–871

    CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Eisner T, Silberglied RE (1988) A chrysopid larva that cloaks itself in mealybug wax. Psyche 95:15–20

    Google Scholar 

  • Entwistle PF, Longworth JF (1963) Relationships between cacao viruses and their vectors – feeding behaviour of three mealybug (Homoptera – Pseudococcidae) species. Ann Appl Biol 52:387–391

    Google Scholar 

  • Fall Y, Vanbac N, Langlois Y (1986). Synthesis of the pheromone of the Comstock mealybug via a sila-cope elimination. Tetrahedron Lett 27:3611–3614

    CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Figadere BA, McElfresh JS, Borchardt D, Daane KM, Bentley W, Millar JG (2007) Trans-alpha-necrodyl isobutyrate, the sex pheromone of the grape mealybug, Pseudococcus maritimus. Tetrahedron Lett 48:8434–8437

    CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Figadere B, Devlin FJ, Millar JG, Stephens PJ (2008) Determination of the absolute configuration of the sex pheromone of the obscure mealybug by vibrational circular dichroism analysis. Chem Commun (Cambridge, UK) 9:1106–1108

    Google Scholar 

  • Flaherty DL, Peacock WL, Bettiga L, Leavitt GM (1982) Chemicals losing effect against grape mealybug. Calif Agric 36:15–16

    CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Foldi I (1983) Structure and functions of the integumentary glands of mealybugs Pseudococcidae and of their secretions. Ann Soc Entomol France 19:155–166

    Google Scholar 

  • Francardi V, Covassi M (1992) Biological and ecological notes on Planococcus vovae (Nasonov) (Homoptera, Pseudococcidae) living on Juniperus spp. in Tuscany. Redia 75:1–20 (in Italian, English abstract)

    Google Scholar 

  • Francis A, Bloem KA, Roda AL, Lapointe SL, Zhang A, Onokpise O (2007) Development of trapping methods with a synthetic sex pheromone of the pink hibiscus mealybug, Maconellicoccus hirsutus (Hemiptera: Pseudococcidae). Flor Entomol 90:440–446

    Google Scholar 

  • Franco JC (1994) Citrus phenology as a basis to study the population dynamics of the citrus mealybug complex in Portugal. In: Tribulato E, Gentile A, Reforgiato G (eds) Proc Int Soc Citric, Acireale, Italy, 1992, International Society of Citriculture 3:929–930

    Google Scholar 

  • Franco JC, Silva EB, Carvalho JP (2000) Mealybugs (Hemiptera, Pseudococcidae) associated with citrus in Portugal. ISA Press, Lisbon (in Portuguese)

    Google Scholar 

  • Franco JC, Russo A, Suma P, Silva EB, Mendel Z (2001) Monitoring strategies of the citrus mealybug, Planococcus citri, in citrus groves. Boll Zool Agr Bachicolt 33:297–303

    Google Scholar 

  • Franco JC, Gross S, Silva EB, Suma P, Russo A, Mendel Z (2004a) Is mass-trapping a feasible management tactic of the citrus mealybug in citrus orchards? An Inst Sup Agron 49:353–367

    Google Scholar 

  • Franco JC, Suma P, da Silva EB, Blumberg D, Mendel Z (2004b) Management strategies of mealybug pests of citrus in Mediterranean countries. Phytoparasitica 32:507–522

    Google Scholar 

  • Franco JC, Antunes R, Lemos R, Pinto A, Campos L, Silva EB, Branco M, Mendel Z (2008a) Do mealybug males respond to visual cues when approaching pheromone sources? In: Branco M, Franco JC, Hodgson CJ (eds) Proc XI Int Symp Scale Insect Stud, Oeiras, Portugal, 24-27 September 2007. ISA Press, Oeiras, Portugal. pp 230–231

    Google Scholar 

  • Franco JC, Fortuna T, Silva EB, Suma P, Russo A, Campos L, Branco M, Zada A, Mendel Z (2008b) May vine mealybug sex pheromones improve the biological control of the citrus mealybug? IOBC wprs Bull 38:94–98

    Google Scholar 

  • Franco JC, Silva EB, Cortegano E, Campos L, Branco M, Zada A, Mendel Z (2008c) Kairomonal response of the parasitoid Anagyrus spec. nov near pseudococci to the sex pheromone of the vine mealybug. Entomol Exp Appl 126:122–130

    CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Fu Castillo AA, Miranda Blanco JL, Osorio Acosta G, Martinez Carrillo JL (2004) Chemical control of mealybug Planococcus ficus Signoret (Homoptera: Pseudococcidae) in table grapes. Agric Tec Mex 30:101–105

    Google Scholar 

  • Garau R, Prota VA, Boscia D, Fiori M, Prota U (1995) Pseudococcus affinis Mask, new vector of grapevine Trichovirus-A and Trichovirus-B. Vitis 34:67–68

    Google Scholar 

  • Geiger CA, Daane KM (2001) Seasonal movement and distribution of the grape mealybug (Homoptera: Pseudococcidae): Developing a sampling program for San Joaquin Valley vineyards. J Econ Entomol 94:291–301

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Gillani WA, Copland MJW (1999) Defensive behaviour of the longtailed mealybug Pseudococcus longispinus (Targioni Tozzetti) (Hemiptera: Pseudococcidae) against the brown lacewing Sympherobius fallax Navas (Neuroptera: Hemerobiidae). Entomologica, Bari 33:279–285

    Google Scholar 

  • Giordanengo P, Nenon JP (1990) Melanization and encapsulation of eggs and larvae of Epidinocarsis lopezi by its host Phenacoccus manihoti – effects of superparasitism and egg-laying patterns. Entomol Exp Appl 56:155–163

    Google Scholar 

  • Godfrey K, Ball J, Gonzalez D, Reeves E (2003) Biology of the vine mealybug in vineyards in the Coachella Valley, California. Southw Entomol 28:183–196

    Google Scholar 

  • Gonzalez RH, Jorge Poblete G, Gerardo-Barria P (2001) The tree fruit mealybug in Chile, Pseudococcus viburni (Signoret), (Homoptera: Pseudococcidae). Rev Frutic 22:17–26

    Google Scholar 

  • Gothilf S (1964) Studies on the biology of the carob moth Ectomyelois ceratoniae (Zeller) in Israel. Nat Univ Inst Agric, Rehovoth, Israel, Spec Bull 76:194–198 (in Hebrew, English abstract)

    Google Scholar 

  • Gross S, Gefen D, Rotman N, Tadmor U, Zemer B, Gotlib A, Gefen Y (2000) Chemical control of the spherical mealybug (Nipaecoccus viridis) (Newstead) in citrus. Alon Hanotea 54:234–240 (in Hebrew)

    Google Scholar 

  • Gross S, Biraty Y, Gal S (2001) Using powdery and microcapsular preparates to decimate ant populations on citrus trees. Alon Hanotea 55:219–221 (in Hebrew)

    Google Scholar 

  • Grout TG, Stephen P. (2005) Use of an inexpensive technique to compare systemic insecticides applied through drip irrigation systems in citrus. Afric Entomol 13:353–358

    Google Scholar 

  • Gullan PJ, Kosztarab M (1997) Adaptations in scale insects. Annu Rev Entomol 42:23–50

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Gullan P, Martin JH (2003) Sternorrhyncha (jumping plant lice, whiteflies, aphids, and scale insects). In: Resh VH, Cardé RT (eds) Encyclopedia of insects. Academic, Amsterdam

    Google Scholar 

  • Gutierrez AP, Neuenschwander P, Vanalphen JJM (1993) Factors affecting biological control of cassava mealybug by exotic parasitoids – a ratio-dependent supply-demand driven model. J Appl Ecol 30:706–721

    Google Scholar 

  • Gutierrez AP, Daane KM, Ponti L, Walton VM, Ellis CK (2008a) Prospective evaluation of the biological control of vine mealybug: refuge effects and climate. J Appl Ecol 45:524–536

    Google Scholar 

  • Gutierrez AP, Ponti L, d’Oultremont T, Ellis CK (2008b) Climate change effects on poikilotherm tritrophic interactions. Clim Change 87:S167–S192

    Google Scholar 

  • Hall DG, Roda A, Lapointe SL, Hibbard K (2008) Phenology of Maconellicoccus hirsutus (Hemiptera: Pseudococcidae) in Florida based on attraction of adult males to pheromone traps. Flor Entomol 91:305–310

    Google Scholar 

  • Hall WJ (1945) The identity of a mealybug vector of swollen shoot-virus disease of cacao in West Africa. Bull Entomol Res 36:305–313

    Google Scholar 

  • Harari AR, Peles S, Kitron M, Spaliarsky V (2006) The moth, Lamoria sp., suspected of causing severe damage to table grapes in the Arava Valley. Alon Hanotea 61:24–28 (in Hebrew)

    Google Scholar 

  • Hardin MR, Benrey B, Coll M, Lamp WO, Roderick GK, Barbosa P (1995) Arthropod pest resurgence: an overview of potential mechanisms. Crop Prot 14:3–18

    Google Scholar 

  • Hardy NB, Gullan PJ, Hodgson CJ (2008) A subfamily-level classification of mealybugs (Hemiptera: Pseudococcidae) based on integrated molecular and morphological data. Syst Entomol 33:51–71.

    Google Scholar 

  • Hashimoto K, Morita A, Kuwahara S (2008) Enantioselective synthesis of a mealybug pheromone with an irregular monoterpenoid skeleton. J Org Chem 73:6913–6915

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Helms KR, Vinson SB (2002) Widespread association of the invasive ant Solenopsis invicta with an invasive mealybug. Ecology 83:2425–2438

    Google Scholar 

  • Helms KR, Vinson SB (2003) Apparent facilitation of an invasive mealybug by an invasive ant. Ins Soc 50:403–404

    Google Scholar 

  • Hinkens DM, McElfresh JS, Millar JG (2001) Identification and synthesis of the sex pheromone of the vine mealybug, Planococcus ficus. Tetrahedron Lett 42:1619–1621

    CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Ho CT, Khoo KC (1997) Partners in biological control of cocoa pests: Mutualism between Dolichoderus thoracicus (Hymenoptera: Formicidae) and Cataenococcus hispidus (Hemiptera: Pseudococcidae). Bull Entom Res 87:461–470

    Google Scholar 

  • Ho HY, Hung CC, Chuang TH, Wang WL (2007) Identification and synthesis of the sex pheromone of the passionvine mealybug, Planococcus minor (Maskell). J Chem Ecol 331:986–1996

    Google Scholar 

  • Hodges G, Hodges A (2004) New invasive species of mealybugs, Palmicultor lumpurensis and Chaetococcus bambusae (Hemiptera: Coccoidea: Pseudococcidae), on bamboo in Florida. Flor Entomol 87:396–397

    Google Scholar 

  • Hodgson C, Abbas G, Arif MJ, Saeed S, Krar H (2008) Phenacoccus solenopsis Tinsley (Sternorrhyncha: Coccoidea: Pseudococcidae), an invasive mealybug damaging cotton in Pakistan and India, with a discussion on seasonal morphological variation. Zootaxa 1913:1–35.

    Google Scholar 

  • Hogendorp BK, Cloyd RA, Swiader JM (2006) Effect of nitrogen fertility on reproduction and development of citrus mealybug, Planococcus citri Risso (Homoptera: Pseudococcidae), feeding on two colors of coleus, Solenostemon scutellarioides L. Codd. Environ Entomol 35:201–211

    Google Scholar 

  • Hunt DWA, Borden JH 1990. Conversion of verbenols to verbenone by yeasts isolated from Dendroctonus ponderosae (Coleoptera: Scolytidae).J Chem Ecol 16: 1385–1397

    CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Iperti G (1999) Biodiversity of predaceous coccinellidae in relation to bioindication and economic importance. Agric Ecosyst Environ 74:323–342

    Google Scholar 

  • Irulandi S, Kumar PKV, Seetharama HG, Sreedharan K (2001) Bioefficacy of neem formulations alone and in combination with synthetic insecticide against mealybug, Planococcus citri (Risso) on Coffea. J Coffee Res 29:56–60

    Google Scholar 

  • James DG (2004) Effect of buprofezin on survival of immature stages of Harmonia axyridis, Stethorus punctum picipes (Coleoptera: Coccinellidae), Orius tristicolor (Hemiptera: Anthocoridae), and Geocoris spp. (Hemiptera: Geocoridae). J Econ Entomol 97:900–904

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Kang SK, Park CS (1990) A synthesis of (±)-3-acetoxy-2,6-dimethyl-1,5-heptadiene, the sex pheromone of the Comstock mealybug. Org Prep Proced Int 22:627–629

    CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Khosla S, Mendiratta G, Brahmachari V (2006) Genomic imprinting in the mealybugs. Cytogen Genome Res 113:41–52

    CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Kim KC (1993) Insect pests and evolution. In: Kim KC, McPheron BA (eds) Evolution of insect pests: patterns of variation. Wiley, New York

    Google Scholar 

  • Kono M, Koga R, Shimada M, Fukatsu T (2008) Infection dynamics of coexisting beta- and gammaproteobacteria in the nested endosymbiotic system of mealybugs. Appl Environ Micro-biol 74:4175–4184

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Kontodimas DC, Eliopoulos PA, Stathas GJ, Economou LP (2004) Comparative temperature-dependent development of Nephus includens (Kirsch) and Nephus bisignatus (Boheman) (Coleoptera: Coccinellidae) preying on Planococcus citri (Risso) (Homoptera: Pseudococcidae): evaluation of a linear and various nonlinear models using specific criteria. Environ Entomol 33:1–11

    Google Scholar 

  • Kosztarab M (1996) Scale insects of northeastern North America: identification, biology, and distribution. Virginia Museum of Natural History, Martinsville, VA

    Google Scholar 

  • Kosztarab M, Kozár F (1988) Scale insects of Central Europe. Dr. W. Junk Publishers, Dordrecht

    Google Scholar 

  • Kubiriba J, Legg JP, Tushemereirwe W, Adipala E (2001) Vector transmission of Banana streak virus in the screenhouse in Uganda. Ann Appl Biol 139:37–43

    Google Scholar 

  • Kukovinets OS, Zvereva TI, Kasradze VG, Galin FZ, Frolova LL, Kuchin AV, Spirikhin LV, Abdullin M I (2006) Novel synthesis of Planococcus citri pheromone. Chem Nat Compd 42:216–218

    CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Larcheveque M, Petit Y (1989) Preparation of enantiomerically pure a-hydroxy esters and a-hydroxy aldehydes. Application to the enantiospecific synthesis of the sex pheromone of the mealybug Pseudococcus comstocki. Bull Soc Chim Fr 1:130–139

    Google Scholar 

  • Larrain PS (1999) Effect of chemigation and painted applications of imidacloprid (ConfidorReg.) upon Pseudococcus viburni (Signoret) (Homoptera: Pseudococcidae) populations in table grapes. Agric Tec Santiago 59:13–25 (in Spanish)

    Google Scholar 

  • Leru B (1986) Epizootiology of the entomophthoraceous fungus Neozygites fumosa in a population of the cassava mealybug, Phenacoccus manihoti (Hom, Pseudococcidae). Entomophaga 31:79–89

    Google Scholar 

  • Leru B, Tertuliano M (1993) Tolerance of different host-plants to the cassava mealybug Phenacoccus manihoti Matile-Ferrero (Homoptera, Pseudococcidae). Int J Pest Manag 39:379–384

    Google Scholar 

  • Leru B, Diangana JP, Beringar N (1994) Effects of nitrogen and calcium on the level of resistance of cassava to the mealybug P. manihoti. Ins Sci Appl 15:87–96

    Google Scholar 

  • Liu F, Li W, Wang Y, Lin J (1995) Convenient syntheses of some analogs of the sex pheromone of citrus mealybug, Planococcus citri (Risso). Synth Commun 25:3837–3843

    CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Lockhart BEL, Autrey LJC, Comstock JC (1992) Partial purification and serology of Sugarcane mild mosaic virus, a mealybug-transmitted closterolike virus. Phytopathology 82:691–695

    Google Scholar 

  • Luck RF, Forster LD (2003) Quality of augmentative biological control agents: a historical perspective and lessons learned from evaluating Trichogramma. In: van Lenteren JC (ed) Quality control and production of biological control agents: theory and testing procedures. CABI, Wallingford

    Google Scholar 

  • Lunderstadt J (1998) Impact of external factors on the population dynamics of beech scale (Cryptococcus fagisuga) (Hom., Pseudococcidae) in beech (Fagus sylvatica) stands during the latency stage. J Appl Entomol – Zeits Angew Entomol 122:319–322

    Google Scholar 

  • Malsch AKF, Kaufmann E, Heckroth HP, Williams DJ, Maryati M, Maschwitz U (2001) Continuous transfer of subterranean mealybugs (Hemiptera, Pseudococcidae) by Pseudolasius spp. (Hymenoptera, Formicidae) during colony fission? Ins Soc 48:333–341

    Google Scholar 

  • Marohasy J (2003) Acceptability and suitability of seven plant species for the mealybug Phenacoccus parvus. Entomol Exp Appl 84:239–246

    Google Scholar 

  • Martin NA, Workman PJ (1999) Efficacy of insecticides for longtailed mealybug control. In: Proceedings of the Fifty Second New Zealand Plant Protection Conference, Auckland Airport Centre, Auckland, New Zealand, 10–12 August 1999. Wine Industry Association, Western Australia.

    Google Scholar 

  • Martinez-Ferrer MT, Ripolles JL, Garcia-Mari F (2006) Enumerative and binomial sampling plans for citrus mealybug (Homoptera: Pseudococcidae) in citrus groves. J Econ Entomol 99:993–1001

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Matile-Ferrero D (1977) New species infesting cassava in Equatorial Africa, Phenacoccus manihoti n. sp. (Homoptera-Coccoidea-Pseudococcidae). Ann Soc Entomol France 13:145–152

    Google Scholar 

  • McCullough DW, Bhupathy M, Piccolino E, Cohen T (1991) Highly efficient terpenoid pheromone syntheses via regio- and stereocontrolled processing of allyllithiums generated by reductive lithiation of allyl phenyl thioethers. Tetrahedron 47:9727–9736

    CAS  Google Scholar 

  • McKenzie HL (1967) Mealybugs of California with taxonomy, biology and control of North American species (Homoptera: Coccoidea: Pseudococcidae) University of California Press, Berkeley, LA, 534 pp

    Google Scholar 

  • McLeod P, Diaz J, Vasquez L, Johnson DT (2002) Within-plant distribution and sampling of mealybugs in plantain var. FHIA 21. Trop Agric 79:150–153

    Google Scholar 

  • Mendel Z, Gross S, Steinberg S, Cohen M, Blumberg D (1999) Trials for the control of the citrus mealybug in citrus orchards by augmentative release of two encyrtid parasitoids. Entomologica, Bari 33:251–265

    Google Scholar 

  • Mendel Z, Dunkelblum E, Branco M, Franco JC, Kurosawa S, Mori K (2003) Synthesis and structure-activity relationship of diene modified analogs of Matsucoccus sex pheromones. Naturwissenschaften 90:313–317

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Mendel Z, Protasov A, Zada A, Assael F, Jasrotia P, Franco JC (2008) Longevity and sexual maturity of an adult male mealybug. In: Branco M, Franco JC, Hodgson CJ (eds) Proc XI Int Symp Scale Insect Stud, Oeiras, Portugal, 24-27 September 2007. ISA Press, Oeiras, Portugal p. 231

    Google Scholar 

  • Meyerdirk DE, French JV, Hart WG (1982) Effect of pesticide residues on the natural enemies of citrus mealybug. Environ Entomol 11:134–136

    CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Millar JG (2008) Stereospecific synthesis of the sex pheromone of the passionvine mealybug, Planococcus minor. Tetrahedron Lett 49:315–317

    CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Millar JG, Midland SL (2007) Synthesis of the sex pheromone of the obscure mealybug, the first example of a new class of monoterpenoids. Tetrahedron Lett 48:6377–6379

    CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Millar JG, Daane KM, McElfresh JS, Moreira JA, Malakar-Kuenen R, Guillen M, Bentley WJ (2002) Development and optimization of methods for using sex pheromone for monitoring the mealybug Planococcus ficus (Homoptera: Pseudococcidae) in California vineyards. J Econ Entomol 95:706–714

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Millar JG, Daane KM, McElfresh JS, Moreira JA, Bentley WJ (2005a) Chemistry and applications of mealybug sex pheromones. In: Petroski RJ, Tellez MR, Behle RW (eds) Semiochemicals in pest and weed control. American Chemical Society, Washington, DC

    Google Scholar 

  • Millar JG, Midland SL, McElfresh JS, Daane KM (2005b) (2,3,4,4-Tetramethylcyclopentyl)methyl acetate, a sex pheromone from the obscure mealybug: First example of a new structural class of monoterpenes. J Chem Ecol 31:2999–3005

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Millar JG, Moreira JA, McElfresh JS, Daane KM, Freund AS (2009) Sex Pheromone of the Longtailed Mealybug: A New Class of Monoterpene Structure. Org Lett 11:2683–2685

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Miller DC, Kosztarab M (1979) Recent advances in the study of scale insects. Annu Rev Entomol 24:1–27

    CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Miller DR (2005) Selected scale insect groups (Hemiptera: Coccoidea) in the southern region of the United States. Flor Entomol 88:482–501

    Google Scholar 

  • Miller DR, Miller GL, Watson GW (2002) Invasive species of mealybugs (Hemiptera: Pseudococcidae) and their threat to US agriculture. Proc Entomol Soc Washington 104:825–836

    Google Scholar 

  • Minafra A, Hadidi A (1994) Sensitive detection of grapevine virus A, B, or leafroll-associated III from viruliferous mealybugs and infected tissue by cDNA amplification. J Virol Meth 47: 175–188

    CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Mittler TE, Douglas AE (2003) Honeydew. In: Resh VH, Cardé RT (eds) Encyclopedia of insects. Academic, Amsterdam

    Google Scholar 

  • Moore D (1988) Agents used for biological control of mealybugs (Pseudococcidae). Biocont News Inf 9:209–225

    Google Scholar 

  • Moore D, Cross AE (1992) Competition between two primary parasitoids, Gyranusoidea tebygi Noyes and Anagyrus mangicola Noyes, attacking the mealybug Rastrococcus invadens Williams and the influence of a hyperparasitoid Chartocerus hyalipennis Hayat. Biocont Sci Technol 2:225–234

    Google Scholar 

  • Moreno DS, Reed DK, Shaw JG, Newell IM (1972) Sex lure survey trap for Comstock mealybug. Citrograph 58:43

    Google Scholar 

  • Moreno DS, Fargerlund J, Ewart WH (1984) Citrus mealybug (Homoptera, Pseudococcidae) – behavior of males in response to sex-pheromone in laboratory and field. Ann Entomol Soc Amer 77:32–38

    CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Moreno DS, Haney PB, Luck RF (1987) Chlorpyrifos and diazinon as barriers to argentine ant (Hymenoptera, Formicidae) foraging on citrus trees. J Econ Entomol 80:208–214

    CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Mori K, Ueda H (1981) Pheromone synthesis. Part XLV. Synthesis of the optically active forms of 2,6-dimethyl-1,5-heptadien-3-ol acetate, the pheromone of the Comstock mealybug. Tetrahedron 37:2581–2583

    CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Morishita M (2005) Effect of bark-scraping, dormant spray of petroleum oil and applying pesticide in late spring on density of Japanese mealybug, Planococcus kraunhiae (Kuwana), in persimmon. Ann Rep Kansai Plant Prot Soc 47:123–124

    Google Scholar 

  • Muniappan R, Meyerdirk DE, Sengebau FM, Berringer DD, Reddy GVP (2006) Classical biological control of the papaya mealybug, Paracoccus marginatus (Hemiptera: Pseudococcidae) in the Republic of Palau. Flor Entomol 89:212–217

    Google Scholar 

  • Muthukrishnan N, Manoharan T, Thevan PST, Anbu S (2005) Evaluation of buprofezin for the management of grape mealy bug, Maconellicoccus hirsutus (Green). J Entomol Res 29:339–344

    CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Nakagawa N, Mori K (1984) Pheromone synthesis. Part 69. New syntheses of (R)-(+)-3-acetoxy-2,6-dimethyl-1,5-heptadiene, the pheromone of the Comstock mealybug. Agr Biol Chem Tokyo 48:2799–2803

    CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Nakahata T, Itagaki N, Arai T, Sugie H, Kuwahara S (2003) Synthesis of the sex pheromone of the citrus mealybug, Pseudococcus cryptus. Biosci Biotechnol Biochem 67:2627–2631

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Nakahira K, Arakawa R (2006) Development and reproduction of an exotic pest mealybug, Phenacoccus solani (Homoptera: Pseudococcidae) at three constant temperatures. Appl Entomol Zool 41:573–575

    Google Scholar 

  • Nassar NMA (2007) Cassava genetic resources and their utilization for breeding of the crop. Gen Mol Res 6:1151–1168

    Google Scholar 

  • Negishi T, Uchida M, Tamaki Y, Mori K, Ishiwatari T, Asano S, Nakagawa K (1980) Sex-pheromone of the Comstock mealybug, Pseudococcus comstocki Kuwana – isolation and identification. Appl Entomol Zool 15:328–333

    CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Nelson-Rees WA (1960) A study of sex predetermination in the mealy bug Planococcus citri (Risso). J Expl Zool 144:111–137

    CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Nestel D, Cohen H, Saphir N, Klein M, Mendel Z (1995) Spatial distribution of scale insects – comparative study using Taylor’s power-law. Environ Entomol 24:506–512

    Google Scholar 

  • Neuenschwander P (2001) Biological control of the cassava mealybug in Africa: A review. Biol Cont 21:214–229

    Google Scholar 

  • Neuenschwander P, Hammond W N O 2006. Sustained biological control of the cassava mealybug Phenacoccus manihoti [Hom.: Pseudococcidae] by Epidinocarsis lopezi [Hym.: Encyrtidae] in Nigeria. BioControl, 35: 515–526

    Google Scholar 

  • Neuenschwander P, Hennessey RD, Herren HR (1987) Food web of insects associated with the cassava mealybug, Phenacoccus manihoti Matile-Ferrero (Hemiptera, Pseudococcidae), and its introduced parasitoid, Epidinocarsis lopezi (Desantis) (Hymenoptera, Encyrtidae) in Africa. Bull Entomol Res 77:177–189

    Google Scholar 

  • Normark BB (2003) The evolution of alternative genetic systems in insects. Annu Rev Entomol 48:397–423

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Noyes JS Hayat M (1994) Oriental mealybug parasitoids of the Anagyrini (Hymenoptera: Encyrtidae). CABI, Wallingford

    Google Scholar 

  • Nur U (1990) Heterochromatization and euchromatization of whole genomes in scale insects (Coccoidea, Homoptera) Development. (Suppl.) 1:29–34

    Google Scholar 

  • Odinokov VN, Kukovinets OS, Isakova LA, Zainullin RA, Moiseenkov AM, Tolstikov GA (1984). New synthesis of the sex pheromone of Planococcus citri (Risso). Dokl Akad NaukSSSR+ 279:398–401

    CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Odinokov VN, Kukovinezh OS, Isakova LA, Zainullin RA, Moisunkov AM, Tolstikov GA (1991) Ozonolysis of alkenes and study of reactions of polyfunctional compounds. 43. Synthesis of (1R,3R)-(+)-cis-1-acetoxymethyl-3-isopropenyl-2,2-dimethylcyclobutane – sex pheromone of grape mealy bugs (Planococcus citri) and its (1S,3S)-(-)-cis-enantiomer. Zh Org Khim 27:555–558

    CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Ortu S, Delrio G (1982) Observations on the field use of the synthetic sex pheromone of Planococcus citri (Risso) (Homoptera, Coccoidea). Redia 65:341–353

    Google Scholar 

  • Panis A (1969) Observations faunistiques et biologiques sur quelques Pseudococcidae (Homoptera, Coccoidea) vivant dans le midi de la France. Ann Zool Ecol Anim 1:211–244

    Google Scholar 

  • Passaro LC, Webster FX (2004) Synthesis of the female sex pheromone of the citrus mealybug, Planococcus citri. J Agr Food Chem 52:2896–2899

    CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Petersen CL, Charles JG (1997) Transmission of grapevine leafroll-associated closteroviruses by Pseudococcus longispinus and P. calceolariae. Plant Pathol 46:509–515

    Google Scholar 

  • Powell W, Pickett JA (2003) Manipulation of parasitoids for aphid pest management: progress and prospects. Pest Manag Sci 59:149–155

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Prasad K, Divakar BN, Hegde NK, Ganigara BS (1998) Nature of damage and efficacy of insecticides against mealybug, Ferrisia virgata (Ckll.) on black pepper cuttings. Pest Manag Hortic Ecosyst 4:52–53

    Google Scholar 

  • Protasov A, Eliyahu M, Dragushich D, Zada A, Mendel Z (2009) Management of the citrus mealybug in greenhouse crops. Gan Sade Vemeshek. (in press)

    Google Scholar 

  • Rae DJ, Jones RE (1992) Influence of host nitrogen levels on development, survival, size and population-dynamics of sugarcane mealybug, Saccharicoccus sacchari (Cockerell) (Hemiptera, Pseudococcidae). Austral J Zool 40:327–342

    Google Scholar 

  • Ranjan R (2006) Economic impacts of pink hibiscus mealybug in Florida and the United States. Stochast Environ Res Risk Assess 20:353–362

    Google Scholar 

  • Rivera SB, Swedlund BD, King GJ, Bell RN, Hussey CE, Shattuck-Eidens DM, Wrobel WM, Peiser GD, Poulter CD (2001) Chrysanthemyl diphosphate synthase: Isolation of the gene and characterization of the recombinant non-head-to-tail monoterpene synthase from Chrysanthemum cinerariaefolium. Proc Natl Acad Sci USA 98:4373–4378

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Roltsch WJ, Meyerdirk DE, Warkentin R, Andress ER, Carrera K (2006) Classical biological control of the pink hibiscus mealybug, Maconellicoccus hirsutus (Green), in southern California. Biol Cont 37:155–166

    Google Scholar 

  • Rosen D (1981) A new species of Pseudaphycus (Hym, Encyrtidae), with notes on the Angelicus group. Entomophaga 26:251–263

    Google Scholar 

  • Rotundo G, Tremblay E (1975) Sull’ attractivitá delle femmine vergini di due specie de Pseudococcidi (Homoptera: Coccoidea) per un Imenottero parassita (Hymenoptera Chalcidoidea). Boll Lab Entomol Agrar F Silvestri, Portici 32:172–179

    Google Scholar 

  • Rotundo G, Tremblay E (1976) Osservazioni sull attivita di volo dei maschi di Pseudococcus calceolariae (Mask.) (Homoptera: Coccoidea). Boll Lab Entomol Agrar F Silvestri, Portici 33:108–112

    Google Scholar 

  • Sadof CS, Neal JJ, Cloyd RA (2003) Effect of variegation on stem exudates of coleus and life history characteristics of citrus mealybug (Hemiptera: Pseudococcidae). Environ Entomol 32:463–469

    Google Scholar 

  • Sagarra LA, Peterkin DD, Vincent C, Stewart RK (2000) Immune response of the hibiscus mealybug, Maconellicoccus hirsutus Green (Homoptera: Pseudococcidae), to oviposition of the parasitoid Anagyrus kamali Moursi (Hymenoptera: Encyrtidae). J Ins Physiol 46:647–653

    CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Sagarra LA, Vincent C, Stewart RK (2001) Suitability of nine mealybug species (Homoptera: Pseudococcidae) as hosts for the parasitoid Anagyrus kamali (Hymenoptera: Encyrtidae). Flor Entomol 84:112–116

    Google Scholar 

  • Samways MJ, Grech NM (1986) Assessment of the fungus Cladosporium oxysporum (Berk and Curt) as a potential biocontrol agent against certain homoptera. Agric Ecosyst Environ 15:231–239

    Google Scholar 

  • Samways MJ, Nel M, Prins AJ (1982) Ants (Hymenoptera: Formicidae) foraging in citrus trees and attending honey-producing Homoptera. Phytophylactica 14:155–157

    Google Scholar 

  • Sánchez L (2008) Sex-determining mechanisms in insects. Int J Dev Biol 52:837–856

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Sazo L, Pizarro E, Araya JE (2006) Effect of the form of application of imidacloprid on control of the long-tailed mealybug Pseudococcus longispinus (Targioni & Tozzetti) on avocado and its impact on Neoseiulus californicus (McGregor) in Chile. Bol San Veg Plagas 32:483–490

    Google Scholar 

  • Serebryakov EP, Suslova LM, Moiseenkov AM, Shavyrin SV, Zaikina NV, Sorochinskaya AM, Kovalev BG (1986). Terpenes in organic syntheses. 1. Synthesis of (1R,3S)-1-(acetoxymethyl)-3-isopropenyl-2,2-dimethylcyclobutane (sex pheromone of the citrus mealybug) from verboxide. Ser Khim 7:1603–1607

    Google Scholar 

  • Serghiou CS (1983) The citrus mealybug, Planococcus citri Risso – carob moth, Ectomyelois ceratoniae Zeller, pest complex on grapefruit and its chemical control. Tech Bull Agric Res Inst, Nicosia, Cyprus. No 56

    Google Scholar 

  • Serrano MS, Lapointe SL (2002) Evaluation of host plants and a meridic diet for rearing Maconellicoccus hirsutus (Hemiptera: Pseudococcidae) and its parasitoid Anagyrus kamali (Hymenoptera: Encyrtidae). Flor Entomol 85:417–425

    Google Scholar 

  • Sether DM, Hu JS (2002a) Closterovirus infection and mealybug exposure are necessary for the development of mealybug wilt of pineapple disease. Phytopathology 92:928–935

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Sether DM, Hu JS (2002b) Yield impact and spread of pineapple mealybug wilt associated virus-2 and mealybug wilt of pineapple in Hawaii. Plant Dis 86:867–874

    Google Scholar 

  • Sether DM, Ullman DE, Hu JS (1998) Transmission of pineapple mealybug wilt-associated virus by two species of mealybug (Dysmicoccus spp.). Phytopathology 88:1224–1230

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Sether DM, Melzer MJ, Busto J, Zee F, Hu JS (2005) Diversity and mealybug transmissibility of ampeloviruses in pineapple. Plant Dis 89:450–456

    CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Sforza R, Boudon-Padieu E, Greif C (2003) New mealybug species vectoring Grapevine leafroll-associated viruses-1 and -3 (GLRaV-1 and-3). Eur J Plant Pathol 109:975–981

    Google Scholar 

  • Sforza R (2008a) Les cochenilles sur la vigne. In “Les ravageurs de la vigne” pp. 188–210. Eds Feret, Bordeaux, p. 389

    Google Scholar 

  • Sforza R. (2008b) Espèces invasives en viticulture. Phytoma-La défense des végétaux. 619: 24–29

    Google Scholar 

  • Shafqat S, Munir A, Mushtaq A, Kwon YJ (2007) Insecticidal control of the mealybug Phenacoccus gossypiphilous (Hemiptera: Pseudococcidae), a new pest of cotton in Pakistan. Entomol Res 37:76–80

    Google Scholar 

  • Shrewsbury PM, Bejleri K, Lea-Cox JD (2004) Integrating cultural management practices and biological control to suppress citrus mealybug. In: proceeding of XXVI IHC Protected cultivation 2002: in search of structures, systems and plant Materials for sustainable greenhouse production. Acta Hort, 633, ISHS, 2004

    Google Scholar 

  • Silva EB, Mexia A (1999a) Histological studies on the stylet pathway, feeding sites and nature of feeding damage by Planococcus citri (Risso) (Homoptera: Pseudococcidae) in sweet orange. Entomologica, Bari 33:347–350

    Google Scholar 

  • Silva EB, Mexia A (1999b) The pest complex Cryptoblabes gnidiella (Milliére) (Lepidoptera: Pyralidae) and Planococcus citri (Risso) (Homoptera: Pseudococcidae) on sweet orange groves (Citrus sinensis (L.) Osbeck) in Portugal: interspecific association. Bol San Veg Plagas 25:89–98

    Google Scholar 

  • Silva EB, Mouco J, Antunes R, Mendel Z, Franco JC (2009) Mate location and sexual maturity of adult male mealybugs: narrow window of opportunity in a short lifetime. IOBCwprs Bull 41:3–9

    Google Scholar 

  • Silverman J, Brightwell RJ (2008) The Argentine ant: challenges in managing an invasive unicolonial pest. Annu Rev Entomol 53:231–252

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Skatteboel L, Stenstroem Y (1989) Facile synthesis of racemic 3-acetoxy-2,6-dimethyl-1,5-heptadiene, the sex pheromone of the Comstock mealybug. Acta Chem Scand 43:93–96

    CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Souissi R (1999) The influence of the host plant of the cassava mealybug Phenacoccus manihoti on the plant and host preferences of its parasitoid Apoanagyrus lopezi. Biol Cont 15:64–70

    Google Scholar 

  • Souissi R, LeRu B (1997) Effect of host plants on fecundity and development of Apoanagyrus lopezi, an endoparasitoid of the cassava mealybug Phenacoccus manihoti. Entomol Exp Appl 82:235–238

    Google Scholar 

  • Stiling P, 1993. Why do natural enemies fail in classical biological control programs. Am. Entomol. 39:31–37

    Google Scholar 

  • Streito JC, Martinez M, (2005) Nouveaux ravageurs, 41 espèces depuis 2000. Phytoma, La défense des végétaux. 586:16–20

    Google Scholar 

  • Stuart RJ, Polavarapu S, Lewis EE, Gaugler R (1997) Differential susceptibility of Dysmicoccus vaccinii (Homoptera: Pseudococcidae) to entomopathogenic nematodes (Rhabditida: Heterorhabditidae and Steinernematidae) J Econ Entomol 90:925–932

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Sugie H, Teshiba M, Narai Y, Tsutsumi T, Sawamura N, Tabata J, Hiradate S (2008) Identification of a sex pheromone component of the Japanese mealybug, Planococcus kraunhiae (Kuwana). Appl. Entomol. Zool. 43: 369–375

    CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Swirski E, Izhar Y, Wysoki M, Gurevitz E, Greenberg S (1980) Integrated control of the long-tailed mealybug, Pseudococcus longispinus (Hom.: Pseudococcidae), in avocado plantations in Israel. Entomophaga 25:415–426

    Google Scholar 

  • Tauber O, Sternlicht M, Hefetz A (1985) Preliminary observations on the behavior of male Planococcus citri exposed to the synthetic sex pheromone, with references to its applicability for population monitoring. Phytoparasitica 13:148

    Google Scholar 

  • Terra WR, Ferreira C (2003) Digestive system. In: Resh VH, Cardé RT (eds) Encyclopedia of insects. Academic Press, Amsterdam

    Google Scholar 

  • Tertuliano M, Leru B (1992) Interaction between cassawa mealybugs (Phenacoccus manihoti) and their host plants – amino-acid and sugar contents of sap. Entomol Exp Appl 64:1–9

    CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Tertuliano M, Dossougbete S, Leru B (1993) Antixenotic and antibiotic components of resistance to the cassava mealybug Phenacoccus manihoti (Homoptera, Pseudococcidae) in various host-plants. Insect Sci App 14:657–665

    Google Scholar 

  • Thao ML, Gullan PJ, Baumann P (2002) Secondary (gamma-proteobacteria) endosymbionts infect the primary (beta-proteobacteria) endosymbionts of mealybugs multiple times and coevolve with their hosts. App Environ Microbiol 68:3190–3197

    CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Thomson KG, Dietzgen RG, Thomas JE, Teakle DS (1996) Detection of pineapple bacilliform virus using the polymerase chain reaction. Ann App Biol 129:57–69

    CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Thulasiram HV, Erickson HK, Poulter CD (2008) A common mechanism for branching, cyclopropanation, and cyclobutanation reactions in the isoprenoid biosynthetic pathway. J Am Chem Soc 130:1966–1971

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Tonkyn DW, Whitcomb RF (1987) Feeding strategies and the guild concept among vascular feeding insects and microorganisms. In: Harris KF (ed) Current topics in vector research, Vol. 4. Springer-Verlag, New York

    Google Scholar 

  • Tsai C, Chan J, Fernandez L, Bosco D, Daane KM, Rodrigo RP (2008) Transmission of grapevine leafroll-associated virus 3 by the vine mealybug (Planococcus ficus). Phytopathology 98:S159

    Google Scholar 

  • Uchida M, Nakagawa K, Negishi T, Asano S, Mori K (1981) Synthesis of 2,6-dimethyl-1,5-heptadien-3-ol acetate, the pheromone of the Comstock mealybug Pseudococcus comstocki Kuwana, and its analogs. Agr Biol Chem Tokyo 45:369–372

    CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Ujita K, Saeki K (2008) Process for preparation of 2-isopropenyl-5-methyl-4-hexen-1-yl 3-methyl-2-butenoate. PCT Int. Appl. Patent WO 2008075468

    Google Scholar 

  • van Lenteren JC (2006) How not to evaluate augmentative biological control. Biol Cont 39:115–118.

    Google Scholar 

  • Vitullo J, Wang SF, Zhang AJ, Mannion C, Bergh JC (2007) Comparison of sex pheromone traps for monitoring pink hibiscus mealybug (Hemiptera: Pseudococcidae). J Econ Entomol 100:405–410

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • von Dohlen CD, Kohler S, Alsop ST, McManus WR (2001) Mealybug beta-proteobacterial endosymbionts contain gamma-proteobacterial symbionts. Nature 412:433–436

    Google Scholar 

  • Walker JTS, Charles JG, Froud KJ, Connolly P (2004) Leafroll virus in vineyards: modelling the spread and economic impact. Horticulture and Food Research Institute of New Zealand Ltd, Mt Albert, NZ

    Google Scholar 

  • Walton VM, Pringle KL (2005) Developmental biology of vine mealybug, Planococcus ficus (Signoret) (Homoptera: Pseudococcidae), and its parasitoid Coccidoxenoides perminutus (Timberlake) (Hymenoptera: Encyrtidae). Afr Entomol 13:143–147

    Google Scholar 

  • Walton VM, Daane KM, Pringle KL (2004) Monitoring Planococcus ficus in South African vineyards with sex pheromone-baited traps. Crop Prot 23:1089–1096

    Google Scholar 

  • Walton VM, Daane KM, Bentley WJ, Millar JG, Larsen TE, Malakar-Kuenen R (2006) Pheromone-based mating disruption of Planococcus ficus (Hemiptera: Pseudococcidae) in California vineyards. J Econ Entomol 99:1280–1290

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Watson GW, Kubiriba J (2005) Identification of mealybugs (Hemiptera: Pseudococcidae) on banana and plantain in Africa. Afr Entomol 13:35–47

    Google Scholar 

  • Way MJ (1963) Mutualism between ants and honeydew-producing Homoptera. Annu Rev Entomol 8:307–344

    Google Scholar 

  • Williams DJ, Granara de Willink MC (1992) Mealybugs of Central and South America. CABI, Wallingford

    Google Scholar 

  • Wolk JL, Goldschmidt Z, Dunkelblum E (1986) A short stereoselective synthesis of (+)-cis-planococcyl acetate, sex pheromone of the citrus mealybug Planococcus citri (Risso). Synthesis 4:347–348

    Google Scholar 

  • Wysoki M, Izhar Y, Swirski E, Gurevitz E, Greenberg S (1977) Susceptibility of avocado varieties to long-tailed mealybug, Pseudococcus longispinus (Targioni Tozzetti) (Homoptera-Pseudococcidae), and a survey of its host plants in Israel. Phytoparasitica 5:140–148

    Google Scholar 

  • Xie Y, Zhao J, Guo Y, Li Y, Zhang H, Guo Y (1999) The biology of Phenacoccus azaleae Kuwana, a pest of bungle prickly ash (Zanthoxylum bungeanum Maxim) forest in northern China. Entomologica, Bari 33:377–382

    Google Scholar 

  • Yamazaki K, Sugiura S (2005) Hemiptera as cecidophages. Entomol News 116:121–126

    Google Scholar 

  • Yang JS, Sadof CS (1995) Variegation in Coleus blumei and the life history of citrus mealybug (Homoptera: Pseudococcidae). Environ Entomol 24:1650–1655

    Google Scholar 

  • Yang JS, Sadof CS (1997) Variation in the life history of the citrus mealybug parasitoid Leptomastix dactylopii (Hymenoptera: Encyrtidae) on three varieties of Coleus blumei. Environ Entomol 26:978–982

    Google Scholar 

  • Zada A, Dunkelblum E (2006) A convenient resolution of racemic lavandulol through lipase-catalyzed acylation with succinic anhydride: simple preparation of enantiomerically pure (R)-lavandulol. Tetrahedron-Asymmetr 17:230–233

    CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Zada A, Harel M (2004) Enzymatic transesterification of racemic lavandulol: preparation of the two enantiomeric alcohols and of the two enantiomers of lavandulyl senecioate. Tetrahedron-Asymmetr 15:2339–2343

    CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Zada A, Dunkelblum E, Assael F, Harel M, Cojocaru M, Mendel Z (2003) Sex pheromone of the vine mealybug, Planococcus ficus in Israel: Occurrence of a second component in a mass-reared population. J Chem Ecol 29:977–988

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Zada A, Dunkelblum E, Harel M, Assael F, Gross S, Mendel Z (2004) Sex pheromone of the citrus mealybug Planococcus citri: Synthesis and optimization of trap parameters. J Econ Entomol 97:361–368

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Zada A, Dunkelblum E, Assael F, Franco JC, Silva EB, Protasov A, Mendel Z (2008) Attraction of Planococcus ficus males to racemic and chiral pheromone baits: flight activity and bait longevity. J Appl Entomol 132:480–489

    Google Scholar 

  • Zeddies J, Schaab RP, Neuenschwander P, Herren HR (2001) Economics of biological control of cassava mealybug in Africa. Agric Econom 24:209–219

    Google Scholar 

  • Zehavi T (2005) Identification and control of vineyard pests. Extension Service Publication no. 1353. Ministry of Agriculture and Rural Development, Bet Dagan, Israel (in Hebrew)

    Google Scholar 

  • Zhang A, Amalin D (2005) Sex pheromone of the female pink hibiscus mealybug, Maconellicoccus hirsutus (Green) (Homoptera: Pseudococcidae): biological activity evaluation. Environ Entomol 34:264–270

    CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Zhang AJ, Nie JY (2005) Enantioselective synthesis of the female sex pheromone of the pink hibiscus mealybug, Maconellicoccus hirsutus. J Agric Food Chem 53:2451–2455

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Zhang AJ, Amalin D, Shirali S, Serrano MS, Franqui RA, Oliver JE, Klun JA, Aldrich JR, Meyerdirk DE, Lapointe SL (2004a) Sex pheromone of the pink hibiscus mealybug, Maconellicoccus hirsutus, contains an unusual cyclobutanoid monoterpene. Proc Nat Acad Sci USA 101:9601–9606

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Zhang AJ, Nie JY, Khrimian A (2004b) Chiral synthesis of maconelliol: a novel cyclobutanoid terpene alcohol from pink hibiscus mealybug, Maconellicoccus hirsutus. Tetrahedron Lett 45:9401–9403

    CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Zhang AJ, Wang SF, Vitullo J, Roda A, Mannion C, Bergh JC (2006) Olfactory discrimination among sex pheromone stereoisomers: Chirality recognition by pink hibiscus mealybug males. Chem Sens 31:621–626

    Google Scholar 

  • Zorloni A, Prati S, Bianco PA, Belli G (2006) Transmission of Grapevine virus A and Grapevine leafroll-associated virus 3 by Heliococcus bohemicus. J Plant Pathol 88:325–328

    Google Scholar 

Download references

Acknowledgements

The authors express their gratitude to José Passos de Carvalho (deceased), Elsa Borges da Silva, Manuel Cariano, Celestino Soares, José Entrudo Fernandes and Hugo Laranjo (from Portugal); Salvatore Marotta (deceased), Agatino Russo, and Pompeo Suma (from Italy); and to Yair Ben Dov, Yoel Drishpoun, Shaul Ben Yehuda, Alex Protasov, Fabienne Assael (deceased), Oded Bar Shalom, Issac Ishaaya and Shmuel Gross (from Israel) for their support, assistance and partnership throughout many years of mealybug study. The comments and suggestions made by three reviewers, Ezra Dunkelblum, Douglas Miller and René Sforza on an earlier draft of this paper are gratefully acknowledged. Thanks are also due to the Fundação para a Ciência e Tecnologia (FCT) and Fundo Europeu de Desenvolvimento Regional (FEDER), for financial support (Project n. POCI and PPDCT/AGR/57580/2004; and JCF received a grant SFRH/BSAB/645/2006).

Author information

Authors and Affiliations

  1. Departmento de Protecção de Plantas e de Fitoecologia, Instituto Superior de Agronomia, Universidade Técnica de Lisboa (ISA/UTL), 1349-017, Lisboa, Portugal

    José Carlos Franco

  2. Centro de Estudos Florestais, ISA/UTL, 1349-017, Lisboa, Portugal

    José Carlos Franco

  3. Department of Entomology, Agricultural Research Organization, the Volcani Center, Bet Dagan, 50250, Israel

    Anat Zada & Zvi Mendel

Authors
  1. José Carlos Franco
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

  2. Anat Zada
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

  3. Zvi Mendel
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

Corresponding author

Correspondence to José Carlos Franco .

Editor information

Editors and Affiliations

  1. Volcani Center, Agricultural Research Organization, Bet Dagan, 50250, Israel

    Isaac Ishaaya

  2. Agricultural Research Organization, Gilat Research Center, Mobile Post, Negev, 85280, Israel

    A. Rami Horowitz

Rights and permissions

Reprints and permissions

Copyright information

© 2009 Springer Science+Business Media B.V.

About this chapter

Cite this chapter

Franco, J.C., Zada, A., Mendel, Z. (2009). Novel Approaches for the Management of Mealybug Pests. In: Ishaaya, I., Horowitz, A. (eds) Biorational Control of Arthropod Pests. Springer, Dordrecht. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-90-481-2316-2_10

Download citation

Publish with us

Policies and ethics

Search

Navigation