Skip to main content
SpringerLink
Log in

Metals

  • Chapter
  • First Online:
Book cover Contact Dermatitis

Abstract

Nickel, chromium, and cobalt belong to the most frequent causes of contact allergy in the general population, certain occupational groups, and dermatitis patients. Consumer products and occupational exposure are the main sources of sensitization and elicitation. Pure metals, alloys, platings, and compounds have different ability to cause sensitization and dermatitis. Nickel release from certain items in contact with the skin and hexavalent chromium in cement are limited by EU regulation for allergy prevention. Strong indications concerning reduced exposure and health benefits have been noted following the implementation of the regulations; however, the problems are still very large. Several other metals are less frequent sensitizers, and some cause cross-reactivity. New data on elicitations thresholds and exposure levels have been published. The dimethylglyoxime test is useful in the assessment of nickel exposure and exposure reduction

This is a preview of subscription content, log in via an institution to check access.

Access this chapter

Log in via an institution
Chapter
USD 29.95
Price excludes VAT (USA)
  • Available as PDF
  • Read on any device
  • Instant download
  • Own it forever
eBook
USD 299.00
Price excludes VAT (USA)
  • Available as EPUB and PDF
  • Read on any device
  • Instant download
  • Own it forever

Tax calculation will be finalised at checkout

Purchases are for personal use only

Institutional subscriptions

References

  1. Blascho A (1889) Die Berufsdermatosen der Arbeiter. Das Galvanisierekzem. Dtsch Med Wschr 15:925–927

    Article  Google Scholar 

  2. Schittenhelm A, Stockinger W (1925) Über die Idiosynkrasie gegen Nickel (Nickel krätze) und ihre Beziehung zur Anaphylaxie. Z Ges Exp Med 45:58–74

    Article  Google Scholar 

  3. McAlester AW Jr, McAlester AW III (1931) Nickel sensitization from white gold spectacle frames. Am J Ophth 14:925–926

    Google Scholar 

  4. Thyssen JP, Linneberg A, Menné T et al (2007) The epidemiology of contact allergy in the general population–prevalence and main findings. Contact Dermatitis 57:287–299

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  5. Thyssen JP, Johansen JD, Zachariae C et al (2008) The outcome of dimethylglyoxime testing in a sample of cell phones in Denmark. Contact Dermatitis 59:38–42

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  6. Nickel Development Institute (1997) Safe use of nickel in the workplace. Toronto pp 1–78

    Google Scholar 

  7. Flint GN (1998) A metallurgical approach to metal contact dermatitis. Contact Dermatitis 39:213–221

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  8. Menné T, Brandup F, Thestrup-Pedersen K et al (1987) Patch test reactivity to nickel alloys. Contact Dermatitis 16:255–259

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  9. Pedersen NB, Fregert S, Brodelius P et al (1974) Release of nickel from silver coins. Acta Derm Venereol 54:231–234

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  10. Fischer T, Fregert S, Gruvberger B et al (1984) Nickel release from ear piercing kits and earrings. Contact Dermatitis 10:39–41

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  11. Menné T, Solgaard P (1979) Temperature-dependent nickel release from nickel alloys. Contact Dermatitis 5:82–84

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  12. Emmett EA, Risby TH, Jiang L et al (1988) Allergic contact dermatitis to nickel: bioavailability from consumer products and provocation threshold. J Am Acad Dermatol 19:314–322

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  13. Haudrechy P, Mantout B, Frappaz A et al (1997) Nickel release from stainless steels. Contact Dermatitis 37:113–117

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  14. Lidén C, Menné T, Burrows D (1996) Nickel-containing alloys and platings and their ability to cause dermatitis. Br J Dermatol 134:193–198

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  15. Fischer LA, Menné T, Johansen JD (2005) Experimental nickel elicitation thresholds–a review focusing on occluded nickel exposure. Contact Dermatitis 52:57–64

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  16. Novak N, Baurecht H, Schäfer T et al (2008) Loss-of-function mutations in the filaggrin gene and allergic contact sensitization to nickel. J Invest Dermatol 128:1430–1435

    Google Scholar 

  17. Thyssen JP, Carlsen BC, Menné T (2008) Nickel sensitization, hand eczema, and loss-of-function mutations in the filaggrin gene. Dermatitis 19:303–307

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  18. Cavelier C, Foussereau J, Massin M (1985) Nickel allergy: analysis of metal clothing objects and patch testing to metal samples. Contact Dermatitis 12:65–75

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  19. Heim KE, McKean BA (2009) Children’s clothing fasteners as a potential source of exposure to releasable nickel ions. Contact Dermatitis 60:100–105

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  20. Suzuki H (1998) Nickel and gold in skin lesions of pierced earlobes with contact dermatitis. A study using scanning electron microscopy and x-ray microanalysis. Arch Dermatol Res 290:523–527

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  21. Lidén C, Skare L, Nise G et al (2008) Deposition of nickel, chromium, and cobalt on the skin in some occupations - assessment by acid wipe sampling. Contact Dermatitis 58:347–354

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  22. Staton I, Ma R, Evans N et al (2006) Dermal nickel exposure associated with coin handling and in various occupational settings: assessment using a newly developed finger immersion method. Br J Dermatol 154:658–664

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  23. Morgan LG, Usher V (1994) Health problems associated with nickel refining and use. Ann Occup Hyg 38:189–198

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  24. Clemmensen OJ, Menné T, Kaaber K et al (1981) Exposure of nickel and the relevance of nickel sensitivity among hospital cleaners. Contact Dermatitis 7:14–18

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  25. Wahlberg JE, Lindstedt G, Einarsson O (1977) Chromium, cobalt and nickel in Swedish cement, detergents, mould and cutting oils. Berufsdermatosen 25:220–228

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  26. Wall LM, Calnan CD (1980) Occupational nickel dermatitis in the electroforming industry. Contact Dermatitis 6:414–420

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  27. Lidén C, Röndell E, Skare L et al (1998) Nickel release from tools on the Swedish market. Contact Dermatitis 39:127–131

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  28. Fournier PG, Govers TR (2003) Contamination by nickel, copper and zinc during the handling of euro coins. Contact Dermatitis 48:181–188

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  29. Zhai H, Chew AL, Bashir SJ et al (2003) Provocative use test of nickel coins in nickel-sensitized subjects and controls. Br J Dermatol 149:311–317

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  30. Lidén C, Skare L, Vahter M (2008) Release of nickel from coins and deposition onto skin from coin handling–comparing euro coins and SEK. Contact Dermatitis 59:31–37

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  31. Lidén C, Skare L, Lind B et al (2006) Assessment of skin exposure to nickel, chromium and cobalt by acid wipe sampling and ICP-MS. Contact Dermatitis 54:233–238

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  32. Basketter DA, Angelini G, Ingber A et al (2003) Nickel, chromium and cobalt in consumer products: revisiting safe levels in the new millennium. Contact Dermatitis 49:1–7

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  33. Fullerton A, Hoelgaard A (1988) Binding of nickel to human epidermis in vitro. Br J Dermatol 119:675–682

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  34. Fullerton A, Andersen JR, Hoelgaard A (1988) Permeation of nickel through human skin in vitro–effect of vehicles. Br J Dermatol 118:509–516

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  35. Hostynek JJ (2003) Factors determining percutaneous metal absorption. Food Chem Toxicol 41:327–345

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  36. Peters K, Gammelgaard B, Menné T (1991) Nickel concentrations in fingernails as a measure of occupational exposure to nickel. Contact Dermatitis 25:237–241

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  37. Allenby CF, Basketter DA (1994) The effect of repeated open exposure to low levels of nickel on compromised hand skin of nickel-allergic subjects. Contact Dermatitis 30:135–138

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  38. Nielsen NH, Menné T, Kristiansen J et al (1999) Effects of repeated skin exposure to low nickel concentrations: a model for allergic contact dermatitis to nickel on the hands. Br J Dermatol 141:676–682

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  39. Kristiansen J, Christensen JM, Henriksen T et al (2000) Determination of nickel in fingernails and forearm skin (stratum corneum). Anal Chim Acta 403:265–272

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  40. Novak N, Bieber T (2003) Allergic and nonallergic forms of atopic diseases. J Allergy Clin Immunol 112:252–262

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  41. Kligman AM (1966) The identification of contact allergens by human assay. 3. The maximization test: a procedure for screening and rating contact sensitizers. J Invest Dermatol 47:393–409

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  42. Vandenberg JJ, Epstein WL (1963) Experimental nickel contact sensitization in man. J Invest Dermatol 41:413–418

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  43. Cronin E (1972) Clinical prediction of patch test results. Trans St Johns Hosp Dermatol Soc 58:153–162

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  44. Nielsen NH, Linneberg A, Menné T et al (2001) Persistence of contact allergy among Danish adults: an 8-year follow-up study. Contact Dermatitis 45:350–353

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  45. Hindsén M, Bruze M, Christensen OB (1999) Individual variation in nickel patch test reactivity. Am J Contact Dermat 10:62–67

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  46. Hindsén M, Bruze M, Christensen OB (1997) The significance of previous allergic contact dermatitis for elicitation of delayed hypersensitivity to nickel. Contact Dermatitis 37:101–106

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  47. Hindsén M, Christensen OB (1992) Delayed hypersensitivity reactions following allergic and irritant inflammation. Acta Derm Venereol 72:220–221

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  48. Nielsen NH, Menné T (1996) The relationship between IgE-mediated and cell-mediated hypersensitivities in an unselected Danish population: the Glostrup Allergy Study, Denmark. Br J Dermatol 134:669–672

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  49. Menné T, Calvin G (1993) Concentration threshold of non-occluded nickel exposure in nickel-sensitive individuals and controls with and without surfactant. Contact Dermatitis 29:180–184

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  50. Andersen KE, Lidén C, Hansen J et al (1993) Dose-response testing with nickel sulphate using the TRUE test in nickel-sensitive individuals. Multiple nickel sulphate patch-test reactions do not cause an ‘angry back’. Br J Dermatol 129:50–56

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  51. Hindsén M, Bruze M (1998) The significance of previous contact dermatitis for elicitation of contact allergy to nickel. Acta Derm Venereol 78:367–370

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  52. Fischer LA, Johansen JD, Menné T (2007) Nickel allergy: relationship between patch test and repeated open application test thresholds. Br J Dermatol 157:723–729

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  53. Fischer LA, Menné T, Johansen JD (2007) Dose per unit area – a study of elicitation of nickel allergy. Contact Dermatitis 56:255–261

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  54. Lisby S, Hansen LH, Menné T (1999) Nickel-induced proliferation of both memory and naive T cells in patch test-negative individuals. Clin Exp Immunol 117:217–222

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  55. Bonnevie P (1936) Der klinische Wert der ekzempropen, an der nickeldiosynkrasie erläutert. Acta Dermatovener 17:376–388

    CAS  Google Scholar 

  56. Calnan CD (1956) Nickel dermatitis. Br J Dermatol 68:229–236

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  57. Marcussen PV (1957) Spread of nickel dermatitis. Dermatologica 115:596–607

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  58. Boss A, Menné T (1982) Nickel sensitization from ear piercing. Contact Dermatitis 8:211–213

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  59. Brandrup F, Larsen SF (1979) Nickel dermatitis provoked by buttons in blue jeans. Contact Dermatitis 5:148–150

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  60. Larsson-Stymne B, Widström L (1985) Ear piercing–a cause of nickel allergy in schoolgirls? Contact Dermatitis 13:289–293

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  61. Andersen KE, Hjorth N, Menné T (1984) The baboon syndrome: systemically-induced allergic contact dermatitis. Contact Dermatitis 10:97–100

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  62. Christensen OB, Möller H (1975) External and internal exposure to the antigen in the hand eczema of nickel allergy. Contact Dermatitis 1:136–141

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  63. Jensen CS, Menné T, Johansen JD (2006) Systemic contact dermatitis after oral exposure to nickel: a review with a modified meta-analysis. Contact Dermatitis 54:79–86

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  64. Hindsén M, Christensen OB, Möller H (1994) Nickel levels in serum and urine in five different groups of eczema patients following oral ingestion of nickel. Acta Derm Venereol 74:176–178

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  65. Mørtz CG, Lauritsen JM, Bindslev-Jensen C et al (2002) Nickel sensitization in adolescents and association with ear piercing, use of dental braces and hand eczema. The Odense Adolescence Cohort Study on Atopic Diseases and Dermatitis (TOACS). Acta Derm Venereol 82:359–364

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  66. Van H, I, Andersen KE, Von Blomberg BM et al (1991) Reduced frequency of nickel allergy upon oral nickel contact at an early age. Clin Exp Immunol 85:441–445

    Google Scholar 

  67. Smith-Sivertsen T, Dotterud LK, Lund E (1999) Nickel allergy and its relationship with local nickel pollution, ear piercing, and atopic dermatitis: a population-based study from Norway. J Am Acad Dermatol 40:726–735

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  68. Santucci B, Cristaudo A, Cannistraci C et al (1988) Nickel sensitivity: effects of prolonged oral intake of the element. Contact Dermatitis 19:202–205

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  69. Veien NK, Hattel T, Laurberg G (1993) Low nickel diet: an open, prospective trial. J Am Acad Dermatol 29:1002–1007

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  70. Van Hoogstraten IM, Von Blomberg BM, Boden D et al (1994) Non-sensitizing epicutaneous skin tests prevent subsequent induction of immune tolerance. J Invest Dermatol 102:80–83

    Google Scholar 

  71. Cavani A, Mei D, Guerra E et al (1998) Patients with allergic contact dermatitis to nickel and nonallergic individuals display different nickel-specific T cell responses. Evidence for the presence of effector CD8+ and regulatory CD4+ T cells. J Invest Dermatol 111:621–628

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  72. Cavani A, Nasorri F, Prezzi C et al (2000) Human CD4+ T lymphocytes with remarkable regulatory functions on dendritic cells and nickel-specific Th1 immune responses. J Invest Dermatol 114:295–302

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  73. Cavani A, Nasorri F, Ottaviani C et al (2003) Human CD25+ regulatory T cells maintain immune tolerance to nickel in healthy, nonallergic individuals. J Immunol 171:5760–5768

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  74. Dubois B, Chapat L, Goubier A et al (2003) Innate CD4+CD25+ regulatory T cells are required for oral tolerance and inhibition of CD8+ T cells mediating skin inflammation. Blood 102:3295–3301

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  75. Moed H, Von Blomberg BM, Bruynzeel DP et al (2005) Regulation of nickel-induced T-cell responsiveness by CD4+CD25+ cells in contact allergic patients and healthy individuals. Contact Dermatitis 53:71–74

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  76. Wu X, Roelofs-Haarhuis K, Zhang J et al (2007) Dose dependence of oral tolerance to nickel. Int Immunol 19:965–975

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  77. Marcussen PV (1959) Nickel eczema. Survey based on 621 cases. Ugeskr Laeger 121:1349–1353

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  78. Menné T, Holm NV (1983) Nickel allergy in a female twin population. Int J Dermatol 22:22–28

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  79. Peltonen L (1979) Nickel sensitivity in the general population. Contact Dermatitis 5:27–32

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  80. Prystowsky SD, Allen AM, Smith RW et al (1979) Allergic contact hypersensitivity to nickel, neomycin, ethylenediamine, and benzocaine. Relationships between age, sex, history of exposure, and reactivity to standard patch tests and use tests in a general population. Arch Dermatol 115:959–962

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  81. Nielsen NH, Menné T (1992) Allergic contact sensitization in an unselected Danish population. The Glostrup Allergy Study, Denmark. Acta Derm Venereol 72:456–460

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  82. Linneberg A, Nielsen NH, Menné T et al (2003) Smoking might be a risk factor for contact allergy. J Allergy Clin Immunol 111:980–984

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  83. Jensen CS, Lisby S, Baadsgaard O et al (2002) Decrease in nickel sensitization in a Danish schoolgirl population with ears pierced after implementation of a nickel-exposure regulation. Br J Dermatol 146:636–642

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  84. Thyssen JP, Johansen JD, Menné T et al (2009) Nickel allergy in Danish women before and after nickel regulation. N Engl J Med 360:2259–2260

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  85. Gamerdinger K, Moulon C, Karp DR et al (2003) A new type of metal recognition by human T cells: contact residues for peptide-independent bridging of T cell receptor and major histocompatibility complex by nickel. J Exp Med 197:1345–1353

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  86. Johansen J, Menné T, Christophersen J et al (2000) Changes in the pattern of sensitization to common contact allergens in Denmark between 1985-86 and 1997-98, with a special view to the effect of preventive strategies. Br J Dermatol 142:490–495

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  87. Schnuch A, Uter W (2003) Decrease in nickel allergy in Germany and regulatory interventions. Contact Dermatitis 49:107–108

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  88. Veien NK, Hattel T, Laurberg G (2001) Reduced nickel sensitivity in young Danish women following regulation of nickel exposure. Contact Dermatitis 45:104–106

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  89. Thyssen JP, Hald M, Avnstorp C et al (2009) Characteristics of nickel allergic dermatitis patients seen in private dermatology clinics in Denmark: a questionnaire study. Acta Derm Venereol 89:384–388

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  90. Thyssen JP, Johansen JD, Carlsen BC et al (2009) Prevalence of nickel and cobalt allergy among female dermatitis patients before and after Danish government regulation: a 23-year retrospective study. J Am Acad Dermatol 61(5):799–805

    Google Scholar 

  91. Rietschel RL, Fowler JF, Warshaw EM et al (2008) Detection of nickel sensitivity has increased in North American patch-test patients. Dermatitis 19:16–19

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  92. Agner T, Johansen JD, Overgaard L et al (2002) Combined effects of irritants and allergens. Synergistic effects of nickel and sodium lauryl sulfate in nickel- sensitized individuals. Contact Dermatitis 47:21–26

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  93. Kalimo K, Lammintausta K, Jalava J et al (1997) Is it possible to improve the prognosis in nickel contact dermatitis? Contact Dermatitis 37:121–124

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  94. Shah M, Lewis FM, Gawkrodger DJ (1998) Nickel as an occupational allergen. A survey of 368 nickel-sensitive subjects. Arch Dermatol 134:1231–1236

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  95. Halkier-Sørensen L (1996) Occupational skin diseases. Contact Dermatitis 35:1–120

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  96. Josefson A, Färm G, Magnuson A et al (2009) Nickel allergy as risk factor for hand eczema: a population-based study. Br J Dermatol 160(4):828–834

    Google Scholar 

  97. Nielsen NH, Linneberg A, Menné T et al (2002) The association between contact allergy and hand eczema in 2 cross-sectional surveys 8 years apart. Contact Dermatitis 47:71–77

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  98. Gawkrodger DJ, Healy J, Howe AM (1995) The prevention of nickel contact dermatitis. A review of the use of binding agents and barrier creams. Contact Dermatitis 32:257–265

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  99. Kaaber K, Menné T, Tjell JC et al (1979) Antabuse treatment of nickel dermatitis. Chelation–a new principle in the treatment of nickel dermatitis. Contact Dermatitis 5:221–228

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  100. Menné T, Rasmussen K (1990) Regulation of nickel exposure in Denmark. Contact Dermatitis 23:57–58

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  101. Lidén C, Johnsson S (2001) Nickel on the Swedish market before the Nickel Directive. Contact Dermatitis 44:7–12

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  102. Lidén C, Norberg K (2005) Nickel on the Swedish market. Follow-up after implementation of the Nickel Directive. Contact Dermatitis 52:29–35

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  103. Thyssen JP, Maibach HI (2008) Nickel release from earrings purchased in the United States: the San Francisco earring study. J Am Acad Dermatol 58:1000–1005

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  104. Burrows D, Adams R (1990) Metals, 2nd edn. WB Saunders, Philadelphia, pp 349–386

    Google Scholar 

  105. Parkhurst HJ (1925) Dermatosis industrialis in a blue print worker due to chromium compounds. Arch Dermatol 12:253–256

    Article  Google Scholar 

  106. Thyssen JP, Jensen P, Carlsen BC et al (2009) The prevalence of chromium allergy in Denmark is currently increasing as a result of leather exposure. Br J Dermatol 161(6):1288–1293

    Google Scholar 

  107. Costa M (1998) Carcinogenic metals. Sci Prog 81(Pt 4):329–339

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  108. Hayes RB (1997) The carcinogenicity of metals in humans. Cancer Causes Control 8:371–385

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  109. Jacobs JJ, Urban RM, Hallab NJ et al (2009) Metal-on-metal bearing surfaces. J Am Acad Orthop Surg 17:69–76

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  110. Kim RH, Dennis DA, Carothers JT (2008) Metal-on-metal total hip arthroplasty. J Arthroplasty 23:44–46

    CAS  Google Scholar 

  111. Hallab N, Merritt K, Jacobs JJ (2001) Metal sensitivity in patients with orthopaedic implants. J Bone Joint Surg Am 83-A:428–436

    Google Scholar 

  112. Gammelgaard B, Fullerton A, Avnstorp C et al (1992) Permeation of chromium salts through human skin in vitro. Contact Dermatitis 27:302–310

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  113. Burrows D (1984) The dichromate problem. Int J Dermatol 23:215–220

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  114. Fregert S, Rorsman H (1966) Allergic reactions to trivalent chromium compounds. Arch Dermatol 93:711–713

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  115. Hansen MB, Johansen JD, Menné T (2003) Chromium allergy: significance of both Cr(III) and Cr(VI). Contact Dermatitis 49:206–212

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  116. Fregert S (1981) Chromium valencies and cement dermatitis. Br J Dermatol 105(suppl 21):7–9

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  117. Fregert S, Gruvberger B (1972) Chemical properties of cement. Berufsdermatosen 20:238–248

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  118. Turk K, Rietschel RL (1993) Effect of processing cement to concrete on hexavalent chromium levels. Contact Dermatitis 28:209–211

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  119. Fregert S, Gruvberger B (1973) Correlation between alkali sulphate and water-soluble chromate in cement. Acta Derm Venereol 53:225–228

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  120. Aslan A (2009) Determination of heavy metal toxicity of finished leather solid waste. Bull Environ Contam Toxicol 82(5):633–638

    Google Scholar 

  121. Hansen MB, Menné T, Johansen JD (2006) Cr(III) and Cr(VI) in leather and elicitation of eczema. Contact Dermatitis 54:278–282

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  122. Nygren O, Wahlberg JE (1998) Speciation of chromium in tanned leather gloves and relapse of chromium allergy from tanned leather samples. Analyst 123:935–937

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  123. Graf D (2009) Formation of Cr(VI) traces in chrometanned leather: causes, prevention and latest findings. J Am Leather Chem Assoc 96:169–179

    Google Scholar 

  124. Rydin S (2002) Investigation of the content of CrVI and CrIII in leather products on the Danish market. Danish Environmental Protection Agency, Copenhagen, Denmark

    Google Scholar 

  125. Estlander T, Jolanki R, Kanerva L (2000) Occupational allergic contact dermatitis from trivalent chromium in leather tanning. Contact Dermatitis 43:114

    Google Scholar 

  126. Freeman S (1997) Shoe dermatitis. Contact Dermatitis 36:247–251

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  127. Geier J, Schnuch A, Frosch PJ (2000) Contact allergy to dichromate in women. Dermatol Beruf Umwelt 48:4–10

    CAS  Google Scholar 

  128. Oumeish OY, Rushaidat QM (1980) Contact dermatitis to military boots in Jordan. Contact Dermatitis 6:498

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  129. Rudzki E, Kozlowska A (1980) Causes of chromate dermatitis in Poland. Contact Dermatitis 6:191–196

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  130. Shackelford KE, Belsito DV (2002) The etiology of allergic-appearing foot dermatitis: a 5-year retrospective study. J Am Acad Dermatol 47:715–721

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  131. Geier J, Lessmann H, Hellweg B et al (2009) Chromated metal products may be hazardous to patients with chromate allergy. Contact Dermatitis 60:199–202

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  132. Hansen MB, Rydin S, Menné T et al (2002) Quantitative aspects of contact allergy to chromium and exposure to chrome-tanned leather. Contact Dermatitis 47:127–134

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  133. Garcia-Perez A, Martin-Pascual A, Sanchez-Misiego A (1973) Chrome content in bleaches and detergents. Its relationship to hand dermatitis in women. Acta Derm Venereol 53:353–358

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  134. Ingber A, Gammelgaard B, David M (1998) Detergents and bleaches are sources of chromium contact dermatitis in Israel. Contact Dermatitis 38:101–104

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  135. Lachapelle JM, Lauwerys R, Tennstedt D et al (1980) Eau de Javel and prevention of chromate allergy in France. Contact Dermatitis 6:107–110

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  136. Hostynek JJ, Maibach HI (1988) Chromium in US household bleach. Contact Dermatitis 18:206–209

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  137. Basketter D, Horev L, Slodovnik D et al (2001) Investigation of the threshold for allergic reactivity to chromium. Contact Dermatitis 44:70–74

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  138. Fowler JF Jr, Kauffman CL, Marks JG et al (1999) An environmental hazard assessment of low-level dermal exposure to hexavalent chromium in solution among chromium-sensitized volunteers. J Occup Environ Med 41:150–160

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  139. Fagliano JA, Savrin J, Udasin I et al (1997) Community exposure and medical screening near chromium waste sites in New Jersey. Regul Toxicol Pharmacol 26:S13–S22

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  140. Horowitz SB, Finley BL (1994) Setting health-protective soil concentrations for dermal contact allergens: a proposed methodology. Regul Toxicol Pharmacol 19:31–47

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  141. Nethercott J, Paustenbach D, Adams R et al (1994) A study of chromium induced allergic contact dermatitis with 54 volunteers: implications for environmental risk assessment. Occup Environ Med 51:371–380

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  142. Paustenbach DJ, Sheehan PJ, Paull JM et al (1992) Review of the allergic contact dermatitis hazard posed by chromium-contaminated soil: identifying a “safe” concentration. J Toxicol Environ Health 37:177–207

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  143. Proctor DM, Fredrick MM, Scott PK et al (1998) The prevalence of chromium allergy in the United States and its implications for setting soil cleanup: a cost-effectiveness case study. Regul Toxicol Pharmacol 28:27–37

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  144. Stern AH, Bagdon RE, Hazen RE et al (1993) Risk assessment of the allergic dermatitis potential of environmental exposure to hexavalent chromium. J Toxicol Environ Health 40:613–641

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  145. Bruze M, Fregert S, Gruvberger B (1990) Patch testing with cement containing iron sulfate. Dermatol Clin 8:173–176

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  146. Eun HC, Marks R (1990) Dose-response relationships for topically applied antigens. Br J Dermatol 122:491–499

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  147. Nielsen NH, Kristiansen J, Borg L et al (2000) Repeated exposures to cobalt or chromate on the hands of patients with hand eczema and contact allergy to that metal. Contact Dermatitis 43:212–215

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  148. Smith AR (1931) Chrome poisoning with manifestations of sensitization. J Am Med Assoc 97:95–98

    Article  Google Scholar 

  149. Englehardt WE, Mayer RL (1931) Über Chromekzeme im Graphischen Gewerbe. Arch Gewerbepath Hyg 2:140–168

    Google Scholar 

  150. Kesten B, Laszlo E (1931) Dermatitis due to sensitization to contact substances: Dermatitis venenata occupational dermatitis. Arch Dermatol 23:221–237

    Article  Google Scholar 

  151. Bonnevie P (1939) Ätiologie und Pathogenese der Eczemkrankheiten. Barth, Leipzig

    Google Scholar 

  152. Bruze M, Conde-Salazar L et al (1999) Thoughts on sensitizers in a standard patch test series. The European Society of Contact Dermatitis. Contact Dermatitis 41:241–250

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  153. Möller H (1989) Intradermal testing in doubtful cases of contact allergy to metals. Contact Dermatitis 20:120–123

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  154. Burrows D, Andersen KE, Camarasa JG et al (1989) Trial of 0.5% versus 0.375% potassium dichromate. European Environmental and Contact Dermatitis Research Group (EECDRG). Contact Dermatitis 21:351

    Google Scholar 

  155. Frosch PJ, Aberer W (1988) Chrom-Allergie. Dermatosen 36:168–169

    Google Scholar 

  156. Allenby CF, Goodwin BF (1983) Influence of detergent washing powders on minimal eliciting patch test concentrations of nickel and chromium. Contact Dermatitis 9:491–499

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  157. Al-Tawil NG, Marcusson JA, Möller E (1983) Lymphocyte stimulation by trivalent and hexavalent chromium compounds in patients with chromium sensitivity. An aid to diagnosis. Acta Derm Venereol 63:296–303

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  158. Räsänen L, Sainio H, Lehto M et al (1991) Lymphocyte proliferation test as a diagnostic aid in chromium contact sensitivity. Contact Dermatitis 25:25–29

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  159. Martins LE, Duarte AJ, Aoki V et al (2008) Lymphocyte proliferation testing in chromium allergic contact dermatitis. Clin Exp Dermatol 33:472–477

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  160. Lindemann M, Rietschel F, Zabel M et al (2008) Detection of chromium allergy by cellular in vitro methods. Clin Exp Allergy 38:1468–1475

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  161. Thormann J, Jespersen NB, Joensen HD (1979) Persistence of contact allergy to chromium. Contact Dermatitis 5:261–264

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  162. Wall LM, Gebauer KA (1991) A follow-up study of occupational skin disease in Western Australia. Contact Dermatitis 24:241–243

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  163. Hansen MB, Menné T, Johansen JD (2006) Cr(III) reactivity and foot dermatitis in Cr(VI) positive patients. Contact Dermatitis 54:140–144

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  164. Olumide YM (1985) Contact dermatitis in Nigeria. Contact Dermatitis 12:241–246

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  165. Anderson RA (1995) Chromium and parenteral nutrition. Nutrition 11:83–86

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  166. Accominotti M, Bost M, Haudrechy P et al (1998) Contribution to chromium and nickel enrichment during cooking of foods in stainless steel utensils. Contact Dermatitis 38:305–310

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  167. Kaaber K, Veien NK (1977) The significance of chromate ingestion in patients allergic to chromate. Acta Derm Venereol 57:321–323

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  168. Kerger BD, Paustenbach DJ, Corbett GE et al (1996) Absorption and elimination of trivalent and hexavalent chromium in humans following ingestion of a bolus dose in drinking water. Toxicol Appl Pharmacol 141:145–158

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  169. Kerger BD, Finley BL, Corbett GE et al (1997) Ingestion of chromium(VI) in drinking water by human volunteers: absorption, distribution, and excretion of single and repeated doses. J Toxicol Environ Health 50:67–95

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  170. Kaaber K, Sjölin KE, Menné T (1983) Elbow eruptions in nickel and chromate dermatitis. Contact Dermatitis 9:213–216

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  171. Jaeger H, Pelloni E (1950) Test épicutanés aux bichromates, positifs dans l’eczema au ciment. Dermatologica 100:207–215

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  172. Balasubramaniam P, Gawkrodger DJ (2003) Chromate: still an important occupational allergen for men in the UK. Contact Dermatitis 49:162–163

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  173. Bock M, Schmidt A, Bruckner T et al (2003) Occupational skin disease in the construction industry. Br J Dermatol 149:1165–1171

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  174. Goon AT, Goh CL (2000) Epidemiology of occupational skin disease in Singapore 1989-1998. Contact Dermatitis 43:133–136

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  175. Kanerva L, Jolanki R, Estlander T et al (2000) Incidence rates of occupational allergic contact dermatitis caused by metals. Am J Contact Dermat 11:155–160

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  176. Uter W, Ruhl R, Pfahlberg A et al (2004) Contact allergy in construction workers: results of a multifactorial analysis. Ann Occup Hyg 48:21–27

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  177. Estlander T (1990) Occupational skin disease in Finland. Observations made during 1974-1988 at the Institute of Occupational Health, Helsinki. Acta Derm Venereol Suppl (Stockh) 155:1–85

    Google Scholar 

  178. Avnstorp C (1991) Risk factors for cement eczema. Contact Dermatitis 25:81–88

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  179. Basketter DA, Briatico-Vangosa G, Kaestner W et al (1993) Nickel, cobalt and chromium in consumer products: a role in allergic contact dermatitis? Contact Dermatitis 28:15–25

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  180. Zachariae CO, Agner T, Menné T (1996) Chromium allergy in consecutive patients in a country where ferrous sulfate has been added to cement since 1981. Contact Dermatitis 35:83–85

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  181. Irvine C, Pugh CE, Hansen EJ et al (1994) Cement dermatitis in underground workers during construction of the Channel Tunnel. Occup Med (Lond) 44:17–23

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  182. Peltonen L, Fräki J (1983) Prevalence of dichromate sensitivity. Contact Dermatitis 9:190–194

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  183. Seidenari S, Manzini BM, Danese P, Motolese A (1990) Patch and prick test study of 593 healthy subjects. Contact Dermatitis 23:162–167

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  184. Lantinga H, Nater JP, Coenraads PJ (1984) Prevalence, incidence and course of eczema on the hands and forearms in a sample of the general population. Contact Dermatitis 10:135–139

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  185. Greig JE, Carson CF, Stuckey MS et al (2000) Prevalence of delayed hypersensitivity to the European standard series in a self-selected population. Australas J Dermatol 41:86–89

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  186. Mørtz CG, Andersen KE (1999) Allergic contact dermatitis in children and adolescents. Contact Dermatitis 41:121–130

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  187. Wass U, Wahlberg JE (1991) Chromated steel and contact allergy. Recommendation concerning a “threshold limit value” for the release of hexavalent chromium. Contact Dermatitis 24:114–118

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  188. Burckhardt W, Frenk E, de SD et al (1971) Decrease of the eczematous effect of cement by ferrous sulphate. Dermatologica 142:271–273

    Google Scholar 

  189. Fregert S, Gruvberger B, Sandahl E (1979) Reduction of chromate in cement by iron sulfate. Contact Dermatitis 5:39–42

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  190. Färm G (1986) Changing patients in chromate allergy. Contact Dermatitis 15:298–299

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  191. Gailhofer G, Ludvan M (1987) Change in the allergen spectrum in contact eczema 1975-1984. Derm Beruf Umwelt 35:12–16

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  192. Goh CL, Gan SL (1996) Change in cement manufacturing process, a cause for decline in chromate allergy? Contact Dermatitis 34:51–54

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  193. Roto P, Sainio H, Reunala T et al (1996) Addition of ferrous sulfate to cement and risk of chromium dermatitis among construction workers. Contact Dermatitis 34:43–50

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  194. Thyssen JP, Johansen JD, Menné T (2007) Contact allergy epidemics and their controls. Contact Dermatitis 56:185–195

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  195. Bruze M, Gruvberger B, Hradil E (1990) Chromate sensitization and elicitation from cement with iron sulfate. Acta Derm Venereol 70:160–162

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  196. Cobalt Development Institute (CDI). Cobalt facts. www.thecdi.com/cobaltfacts.php

  197. Tandon R, Aarts B (1993) Chromium, nickel and cobalt contents of some Australian cements. Contact Dermatitis 28:201–205

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  198. Julander A, Hindsén M, Skare L et al (2009) Cobalt-containing alloys and their ability to release cobalt and cause dermatitis. Contact Dermatitis 60:165–170

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  199. Julander A, Skare L, Mulder M et al (2010) Skin deposition of nickel, cobalt and chromium in production of gas turbines and space propulsion components. Ann Occup Hyg 54:340–350

    Google Scholar 

  200. Linnainmaa M, Kiilunen M (1997) Urinary cobalt as a measure of exposure in the wet sharpening of hard metal and stellite blades. Int Arch Occup Environ Health 69:193–200

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  201. ESSCA Writing Group (2008) The European Surveillance System of Contact Allergies (ESSCA): results of patch testing the standard series, 2004. J Eur Acad Dermatol Venereol 22:174–181

    Google Scholar 

  202. Fowler JF Jr (1990) Allergic contact dermatitis to metals. Am J Contact Dermat 1:212–223

    Google Scholar 

  203. Fregert S, Rorsman H (1966) Allergy to chromium, nickel and cobalt. Acta Derm Venereol (Stockh) 46:144–148

    CAS  Google Scholar 

  204. Hegewald J, Uter W, Pfahlberg A et al (2005) A multifactorial analysis of concurrent patch-test reactions to nickel, cobalt, and chromate. Allergy 60:372–378

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  205. Lindberg M, Edman B, Fischer T et al (2007) Time trends in Swedish patch test data from 1992 to 2000. A multi-centre study based on age- and sex-adjusted results of the Swedish standard series. Contact Dermatitis 56:205–210

    Google Scholar 

  206. Schwartz L, Peck SM, Blair KE et al (1945) Allergic dermatitis due to metallic cobalt. J Allergy Clin Immunol 16:51–53

    CAS  Google Scholar 

  207. Pirilä V (1953) Sensitivity to cobalt in pottery workers. Acta Derm Venereol (Stockh) 33:193–198

    Google Scholar 

  208. Fischer T, Rystedt I (1983) Cobalt allergy in hard metal workers. Contact Dermatitis 9:115–121

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  209. Rystedt I, Fischer T (1983) Relationship between nickel and cobalt sensitization in hard metal workers. Contact Dermatitis 9:195–200

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  210. Condé-Salazar L, Guimaraens D, Villegas C et al (1995) Occupational allergic contact dermatitis in construction workers. Contact Dermatitis 33:226–230

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  211. Geier J, Schnuch A (1995) A comparison of contact allergies among construction and nonconstruction workers attending contact dermatitis clinics in Germany: results of the Information Network of Departments of Dermatology from November 1989 to July 1993. Am J Contact Dermat 6:86–94

    Article  Google Scholar 

  212. Uter W, Rühl R, Pfahlberg A et al (2004) Contact allergy in construction workers: results of a multifactorial analysis. Ann Occup Hyg 48:21–27

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  213. Geier J, Lessmann H, Schnuch A et al (2004) Contact sensitizations in metalworkers with occupational dermatitis exposed to water-based metalworking fluids: results of the research project “FaSt”. Int Arch Occup Environ Health 77:543–551

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  214. Burrows D, Adams RM, Flint GN (1999) Metals. In: Adams RM (ed) Occupational skin disease, 3rd edn. Saunders, Philadelphia, pp 395–433

    Google Scholar 

  215. Lidén C, Wahlberg JE (1994) Cross-reactivity to metal compounds studied in guinea pigs induced with chromate or cobalt. Acta Derm Venereol (Stockh) 74:341–343

    Google Scholar 

  216. Wahlberg JE, Lidén C (2000) Cross-reactivity patterns of cobalt and nickel studied with repeated open applications (ROATs) to the skin of guinea pigs. Am J Contact Dermat 11:42–48

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  217. Lidén C, Wahlberg JE, Maibach HI (1995) Skin. In: Goyer RA, Klaassen CD, Waalkes MP (eds) Metal toxicology. Academic Press, New York, pp 447–464

    Google Scholar 

  218. Fischer T, Rystedt I (1985) False-positive, follicular and irritant patch test reactions to metal salts. Contact Dermatitis 12:93–98

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  219. Allenby CF, Basketter DA (1989) Minimum eliciting patch test concentrations of cobalt. Contact Dermatitis 20:185–190

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  220. de Fine OF, Menné T (1992) Skin reactivity to metallic cobalt in patients with a positive patch test to cobalt chloride. Contact Dermatitis 27:241–243

    Article  Google Scholar 

  221. Netterlid E, Hindsén M, Björk J et al (2009) There is an association between contact allergy to aluminium and persistent subcutaneous nodules in children undergoing hyposensitization therapy. Contact Dermatitis 60:41–49

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  222. Bruze M, Lundh K, Gruvberger B et al (2008) Aluminium chloride hexahydrate at 2% is insufficient to trace contact allergy to aluminium. Contact Dermatitis 59:183–184

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  223. Johannessen H, Bergan-Skar B (1980) Itching problems among potroom workers in factories using recycled alumina. Contact Dermatitis 6:42–43

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  224. Hall AF (1944) Occupational contact dermatitis among aircraft workers. J Am Med Assoc 125:179–185

    Article  Google Scholar 

  225. Peters T, Hani N, Kirchberg K et al (1998) Occupational contact sensitivity to aluminium in a machine construction plant worker. Contact Dermatitis 39:322–323

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  226. Lidén C (1994) Cold-impregnated aluminium. A new source of nickel exposure. Contact Dermatitis 31:22–24

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  227. Williams S, Freemont AJ (1984) Aerosol antiperspirants and axillary granulomata. Br Med J (Clin Res Ed) 288:1651–1652

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  228. Dwyer CM, Kerr RE (1993) Contact allergy to aluminium in 2 brothers. Contact Dermatitis 29:36–38

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  229. Veien NK, Hattel T, Laurberg G (1993) Systemically aggravated contact dermatitis caused by aluminium in toothpaste. Contact Dermatitis 28:199–200

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  230. Frost L, Johansen P, Pedersen S et al (1985) Persistent subcutaneous nodules in children hyposensitized with aluminium-containing allergen extracts. Allergy 40:368–372

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  231. Veien NK, Hattel T, Justesen O et al (1986) Aluminium allergy. Contact Dermatitis 15:295–297

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  232. Clemmensen O, Knudsen HE (1980) Contact sensitivity to aluminium in a patient hyposensitized with aluminium precipitated grass pollen. Contact Dermatitis 6:305–308

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  233. Bøhler-Sommeregger K, Lindemayr H (1986) Contact sensitivity to aluminium. Contact Dermatitis 15:278–281

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  234. Fawcett HA, McGibbon D, Cronin E (1985) Persistent vaccination granuloma due to aluminum sensitivity. Br J Dermatol 113(suppl 29):101–102

    Article  Google Scholar 

  235. Nielsen AO, Kaaber K, Veien NK (1992) Aluminum allergy caused by DTP vaccine. Ugeskr Laeger 154:1900–1901

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  236. Kriebel D, Sprince NL, Eisen EA et al (1988) Beryllium exposure and pulmonary function: a cross-sectional study of beryllium workers. Br J Ind Med 45:167–173

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  237. Bobka CA, Stewart LA, Engelken GJ et al (1997) Comparison of in vivo and in vitro measures of beryllium sensitization. J Occup Environ Med 39:540–547

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  238. Berlin JM, Taylor JS, Sigel JE et al (2003) Beryllium dermatitis. J Am Acad Dermatol 49:939–941

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  239. Curtis CH (1951) Cutaneous hypersensitivity to beryllium: a study of 13 cases. Arch Dermatol Syphilol 64:470–482

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  240. Vilaplana J, Romaguera C, Grimalt F (1992) Occupational and non-occupational allergic contact dermatitis from beryllium. Contact Dermatitis 26:295–298

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  241. Haberman AL, Pratt M, Storrs FJ (1993) Contact dermatitis from beryllium in dental alloys. Contact Dermatitis 28:157–162

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  242. Torgersson RR, Davis MDP, Bruce AJ et al (2007) Contact allergy in oral disease. J Am Acad Dermatol 57:315–321

    Article  Google Scholar 

  243. Vahter M, Åkesson A, Lidén C et al (2007) Gender differences in the disposition and toxicity of metals. Environ Res 104:85–95

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  244. Wahlberg JE (1977) Routine patch testing with cadmium chloride. Contact Dermatitis 3:293–296

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  245. Geier J, Vieluf D, Fuchs T (1996) Patch testing with cadmium chloride. Contact Dermatitis 34:73–74

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  246. Gebhart M, Geier J (1996) Evaluation of patch test results with denture material series. Contact Dermatitis 34:191–195

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  247. Kaaber S, Cramers M, Jepsen FL (1982) The role of cadmium as a skin sensitizing agent in denture and non-denture wearers. Contact Dermatitis 8:308–313

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  248. Björnberg A (1963) Reaction to light in yellow tattoos from cadmium sulfide. Arch Dermatol 88:267–271

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  249. Wahlberg JE, Boman A (1979) Guinea pig maximization test method – cadmium chloride. Contact Dermatitis 5:405

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  250. Karlberg A-T, Boman A, Wahlberg JE (1983) Copper – a rare sensitizer. Contact Dermatitis 9:134–139

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  251. Hostynek JJ, Maibach HI (2003) Copper hypersensitivity: dermatologic aspects – an overview. Rev Environ Health 18:153–183

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  252. Barranco VP (1972) Eczematous dermatitis caused by internal exposure to copper. Arch Dermatol 106:386–387

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  253. Romaguera C, Grimalt F (1981) Contact dermatitis from a copper-containing intrauterine contraceptive device. Contact Dermatitis 7:163–164

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  254. Nordlind K, Lidén S (1992) Patch test reactions to metal salts in patients with oral mucosal lesions associated with amalgam restorations. Contact Dermatitis 27:157–160

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  255. Santosh V, Ranjith K, Shenoi SD et al (1999) Results of patch testing with dental materials. Contact Dermatitis 40:50–51

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  256. Frykholm KO, Frithiof F, Fernström AI et al (1969) Allergy to copper derived from dental alloys as a possible cause of oral lesions of lichen planus. Acta Derm Venereol (Stockh) 49:268–281

    CAS  Google Scholar 

  257. Wöhrl S, Hemmer W, Focke M et al (2001) Copper allergy revisited. J Am Acad Dermatol 45:863–870

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  258. Basketter DA, Gerberick GF, Kimber I et al (1996) The local lymph node assay: a viable alternative to currently accepted skin sensitization tests. Food Chem Toxicol 34:985–997

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  259. Bruze M, Andersen KE (1999) Gold – a controversial sensitizer. European Environmental and Contact Dermatitis Research Group. Contact Dermatitis 40:1–5

    Article  Google Scholar 

  260. Björkner B, Bruze M, Möller H (1994) High frequency of contact allergy to gold sodium thiosulfate. An indication of gold allergy? Contact Dermatitis 30:144–151

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  261. Isaksson M, Bruze M (2000) Gold. In: Kanerva L, Elsner P, Wahlberg JE, Maibach HI (eds) Handbook of occupational dermatology. Springer, Berlin

    Google Scholar 

  262. Brown DH, Smith WE, Fox P et al (1982) The reactions of gold (0) with amino acids and the significance of these reactions in the biochemistry of gold. Inorg Chim Acta 67:27–30

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  263. Lidén C, Nordenadler M, Skare L (1998) Metal release from gold-containing jewelry materials: no gold release detected. Contact Dermatitis 39:281–285

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  264. Ahnlide I, Ahlgren C, Björkner B et al (2002) Gold concentration in blood in relation to the number of gold restorations and contact allergy to gold. Acta Odontol Scand 60:301–305

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  265. Bruze M, Edman B, Björkner B et al (1994) Clinical relevance of contact allergy to gold sodium thiosulfate. J Am Acad Dermatol 31:579–583

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  266. Schaffran RM, Storrs FJ, Schalock P (1999) Prevalence of gold sensitivity in asymptomatic individuals with gold dental restorations. Am J Contact Dermat 10:201–206

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  267. Ahlgren C, Ahnlide I, Björkner B et al (2002) Contact allergy to gold is correlated to dental gold. Acta Derm Venereol (Stockh) 82:41–44

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  268. Ekqvist S, Svedman C, Möller H et al (2007) High frequency of contact allergy to gold in patients with endovascular coronary stents. Br J Dermatol 157:730–738

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  269. Eisler R (2003) Chrysotherapy: a synoptic review. Inflamm Res 52:487–501

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  270. Björkner B, Bruze M, Möller H et al (2008) Allergic contact dermatitis as a complication of lip loading with gold implants. Dermatitis 19:148–153

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  271. Fowler JF Jr (1987) Selection of patch test materials for gold allergy. Contact Dermatitis 17:23–25

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  272. Bruze B, Björkner B, Möller H (1999) Patch testing with gold sodium thiosulfate. Jadassohn Centenary Congress, London, UK (abstract book 14)

    Google Scholar 

  273. Bruze M, Hedman H, Björkner B et al (1995) The development and course of test reactions to gold sodium thiosulfate. Contact Dermatitis 33:386–391

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  274. Räsänen L, Kalimo K, Laine J et al (1996) Contact allergy to gold in dental patients. Br J Dermatol 134:673–677

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  275. Räsänen L, Kaipiainen-Seppänen O, Myllykangas-Luosujärvi R et al (1999) Hypersensitivity to gold in gold sodium thiomalate-induced dermatosis. Br J Dermatol 141:683–688

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  276. Vamnes JS, Gjerdet NR, Morken T et al (1999) In vitro lymphocyte reactivity to gold compounds in the diagnosis of contact hypersensitivity. Contact Dermatitis 41:156–160

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  277. Rietschel RL, Warshaw EM, Sasseville D et al (2007) Common contact allergens associated with eyelid dermatitis: Data from the North American Contact Dermatitis Group 2003-2004 study period. Dermatitis 18:78–81

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  278. Fowler JF Jr, Taylor J, Storrs F et al (2001) Gold allergy in North America. Am J Contact Dermat 12:3–5

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  279. McKenna KE, Dolan O, Walsh MY et al (1995) Contact allergy to gold sodium thiosulfate. Contact Dermatitis 32:143–146

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  280. Kobayashi Y, Nanko H, Nakamura J et al (1992) Lymphocytoma cutis induced by gold pierced earrings. J Am Acad Dermatol 27:457–458

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  281. Armstrong DKB, Walsh MY, Dawson JF (1997) Granulomatous contact dermatitis due to gold earrings. Br J Dermatol 136:776–778

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  282. Park YM, Kang H, Kim HO, Cho BK (1999) Lymphomatoid eosinophilic reaction to gold earrings. Contact Dermatitis 40:216–217

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  283. Möller H (2002) Dental gold alloys and contact allergy. Contact Dermatitis 47:63–66

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  284. Raap U, Stiesch M, Reh H et al (2009) Investigation of contact allergy to dental metals in 206 patients. Contact Dermatitis 60:339–343

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  285. Lazarov A, Kidron D, Tulchinsky Z et al (2003) Contact orofacial granulomatosis caused by delayed hypersensitivity to gold and mercury. J Am Acad Dermatol 49:1117–1120

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  286. Svedman C, Ekqvist S, Möller H et al (2009) A correlation found between contact allergy to stent material and restenosis of the coronary arteries. Contact Dermatitis 60:158–164

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  287. Möller H, Björkner B, Bruze M (1996) Clinical reactions to systemic provocation with gold sodium thiomalate in patients with contact allergy to gold. Br J Dermatol 135:423–427

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  288. Möller H, Ohlsson K, Linder C et al (1998) Cytokines and acute phase reactants during flare-up of contact allergy to gold. Am J Contact Dermat 9:15–22

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  289. Möller H, Ohlsson K, Linder C et al (1999) The flare-up reactions after systemic provocation in contact allergy to nickel and gold. Contact Dermatitis 40:200–204

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  290. Möller H, Björkner B, Bruze M et al (1996) Flare-up at contact allergy sites in a gold-treated rheumatic patient. Acta Derm Venereol (Stockh) 76:55–58

    Google Scholar 

  291. Russell MA, Langley M, Truett AP 3rd et al (1997) Lichenoid dermatitis after consumption of gold-containing liquor. J Am Acad Dermatol 36:841–844

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  292. Gruvberger B, Bruze M, Almgren G (1998) Occupational dermatoses in a plant producing binders for paints and glues. Contact Dermatitis 38:71–77

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  293. Fleming C, Lucke T, Forsyth A et al (1998) A controlled study of gold contact hypersensitivity. Contact Dermatitis 38:137–139

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  294. Isaksson M, Zimerson E, Bruze M (1999) Occupational dermatoses in composite production. J Occup Environ Med 41:261–266

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  295. Fowler JF Jr (2001) Gold. Am J Contact Dermatitis 12:1–2

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  296. Langan DC, Fan PL, Hoos AA (1987) The use of mercury in dentistry: a critical review of the recent literature. J Am Dent Assoc 115:867–880

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  297. Handley J, Todd D, Burrows D (1993) Mercury allergy in a contact dermatitis clinic in Northern Ireland. Contact Dermatitis 29:258–261

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  298. Öskaya E, Mirzojeva L, Ötkur B (2009) Systemic allergic dermatitis caused by “white precipitate” in a skin lightening cream. Contact Dermatitis 60:61–63

    Article  Google Scholar 

  299. Boyd AS, Seger D, Vannucci S et al (2000) Mercury exposure and cutaneous disease. J Am Acad Dermatol 43:81–90

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  300. Lerch M, Bircher AJ (2004) Systemically induced allergic exanthem from mercury. Contact Dermatitis 50:349–353

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  301. Munro-Ashman D, Munro DD, Hughes TH (1969) Contact dermatitis from palladium. Trans St Johns Hosp Dermatol Soc 55:196–197

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  302. Larese Filon L, Uderzo D, Bagnato E (2003) Sensitization to palladium chloride: a ten-year evaluation. Am J Contact Dermat 14:78–81

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  303. Kanerva L, Kerosuo H, Kullaa A et al (1996) Allergic patch test reactions to palladium chloride in schoolchildren. Contact Dermatitis 34:39–42

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  304. Brasch J, Geier J (1997) Patch test results in schoolchildren. Results from the Information Network of Departments of Dermatology (IVDK) and the German Contact Dermatitis Research Group (DKG). Contact Dermatitis 37:286–293

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  305. Bordel-Gómez MT, Miranda-Romero A, Castrodeza-Sanz J (2008) Isolated and concurrent prevalence of sensitization to transition metals in a Spanish population. J Eur Acad Dermatol Venereol 22:1452–1457

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  306. Koch P, Baum H-P (1996) Contact stomatitis due to palladium and platinum in dental alloys. Contact Dermatitis 34:253–257

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  307. Goossens A, De Swerdt A, De Coninck K et al (2006) Allergic contact granuloma due to palladium following ear piercing. Contact Dermatitis 55:338–341

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  308. Todd DJ, Burrows D (1992) Patch testing with pure palladium metal in patients with sensitivity to palladium chloride. Contact Dermatitis 26:327–331

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  309. Uter W, Fuchs T, Häusser M et al (1995) Patch test results with serial dilutions of nickel sulfate (with and without detergent), palladium chloride, and nickel and palladium metal plates. Contact Dermatitis 32:135–142

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  310. Hindsén M, Spirén A, Bruze M (2005) Cross-reactivity between nickel and palladium demonstrated by systemic administration of nickel. Contact Dermatitis 53:2–8

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  311. Wahlberg JE, Boman AS (1992) Cross-reactivity to palladium and nickel studied in the guinea pig. Acta Derm Venereol (Stockh) 72:95–97

    CAS  Google Scholar 

  312. Wahlberg JE, Lidén C (1999) Cross-reactivity patterns of palladium and nickel studied by repeated open applications (ROATs) to the skin of guinea pigs. Contact Dermatitis 41:145–149

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  313. Baker DB, Gann PH, Brooks SM et al (1990) Cross-sectional study of platinum salts sensitization among precious metals refinery workers. Am J Ind Med 18:653–664

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  314. Santucci B, Valenzano C, de Rocco M et al (2000) Platinum in the environment: frequency of reactions to platinum-group elements in patients with dermatitis and urticaria. Contact Dermatitis 43:333–338

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  315. Dastychová E, Semrádová V (2000) A case of contact hypersensitivity to platinum salts. Contact Dermatitis 43:226

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  316. Watsky KL (2007) Occupational allergic contact dermatitis to platinum, palladium and gold. Contact Dermatitis 57:382–383

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  317. de la Cuadra J, Grau-Massanés M (1991) Occupational contact dermatitis from rhodium and cobalt. Contact Dermatitis 25:182–184

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  318. Nakayama H, Imai T (1982) Occupational contact urticaria, contact dermatitis and asthma caused by rhodium hypersensitivity. In: Proceedings of the 6th international symposium on contact dermatitis and joint meeting between ICDRG and JCDRG, Tokyo, Japan

    Google Scholar 

  319. Stingeni L, Brunelli L, Lisi P (2004) Contact sensitivity to rhodium and iridium in consecutively patch tested subjects. Contact Dermatitis 51:316–317

    Google Scholar 

  320. Lidén C, Maibach HI, Wahlberg JE (1995) Skin. In: Goyer RA, Klaassen CD, Waalkes MP (eds) Metal toxicology. Academic Press, New York, pp 447–464

    Google Scholar 

  321. Lansdown AB (2006) Silver in health care: antimicrobial effects and safety in use. Curr Probl Dermatol 33:17–34

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  322. Drake PL, Hazelwood KJ (2005) Exposure-related health effects of silver and silver compounds: a review. Ann Occup Hyg 49:575–585

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  323. Iliev D, Elsner P (1998) Unusual edge effect in patch testing with silver nitrate. Am J Contact Dermat 9:57–59

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  324. Nielsen NH, Skov L (1998) Occupational allergic contact dermatitis in a patient with a positive patch test to tin. Contact Dermatitis 39:99–100

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  325. Menné T, Andersen KE, Kaaber K et al (1987) Tin: an overlooked contact sensitizer? Contact Dermatitis 16:9–10

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

Download references

Author information

Authors and Affiliations

  1. Unit of Occupational and Environmental Dermatology, Institute of Environmental Medicine, Karolinska Institutet, 210, SE-171 77, Stockholm, Sweden

    Carola Lidén

  2. Department of Occupational and Environmental Dermatology, Malmö University Hospital, Lund University, SE-205 02, Malmö, Sweden

    Magnus Bruze

  3. Department of Dermato-Allergology, National Allergy Research Centre, Gentofte Hospital, University of Copenhagen, DK-2900, Hellerup, Denmark

    Jacob Pontoppidan Thyssen

  4. Department of Dermato-Allergology, Gentofte Hospital, University of Copenhagen, DK-2900, Hellerup, Denmark

    Torkil Menné

Authors
  1. Carola Lidén
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

  2. Magnus Bruze
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

  3. Jacob Pontoppidan Thyssen
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

  4. Torkil Menné
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

Corresponding author

Correspondence to Carola Lidén .

Editor information

Editors and Affiliations

  1. Dept. Dermatology, Amtssygehuset Gentofte, Niels Andersens Vej 65, Hellerup, 2900, Denmark

    Jeanne Duus Johansen

  2. Klinikzentrum Mitte, Hautklinik, Städtische Kliniken Dortmund, Beurhausstr. 40, Dortmund, 44137, Germany

    Peter J. Frosch

  3. Labo. Dermatochimie, Institut le Bel, rue Blaise Pascal 4, Strasbourg CX, 67070, France

    Jean-Pierre Lepoittevin

Rights and permissions

Reprints and permissions

Copyright information

© 2011 Springer-Verlag Berlin Heidelberg

About this chapter

Cite this chapter

Lidén, C., Bruze, M., Thyssen, J.P., Menné, T. (2011). Metals. In: Johansen, J., Frosch, P., Lepoittevin, JP. (eds) Contact Dermatitis. Springer, Berlin, Heidelberg. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-642-03827-3_35

Download citation

  • DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-642-03827-3_35

  • Published:

  • Publisher Name: Springer, Berlin, Heidelberg

  • Print ISBN: 978-3-642-03826-6

  • Online ISBN: 978-3-642-03827-3

  • eBook Packages: MedicineMedicine (R0)

Publish with us

Policies and ethics

Search

Navigation