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Historical and Cultural Factors in Ethnic Identity Formation of Asian-Indian Immigrants: Understanding the Context of Care

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Counseling Asian Indian Immigrant Families

Abstract

This chapter sets the stage for the development of a model of pastoral psychotherapeutic care that fits the needs of Asian-Indian immigrants in the United States of America, based on an understanding of a fuller picture of who they are and how they have come to be who they are. I explore the complex cultural identity of Asian-Indians based on their cultural values, belief systems, and lifestyle, while trying to delineate some of their fears, including a sense of isolation, they may experience while they are living in the United States. I also explore how Indian immigrants respond to the unique stress of immigration and try to reshape their lives in the United States in the midst of various post-immigration challenges and struggles. Asian-Indians warrant separate research and exploration since their culture is distinct from other Asian groups. Asian-Indians are, however, a heterogeneous group in themselves. Parmatma Saran states that each regional subgroup of India has its own unique history, practices, languages, values, and customs. Yet, there are many cultural beliefs, values, and practices related to family, marriage, child-rearing, and community in common among Indians. This chapter discusses those common cultural values, beliefs, and practices. Hence, the term “Indian culture” in this book only refers to those common cultural values. Highlighting the importance of Asian-Indian traditional culture or the cultural context of Asian-Indians neither negates the reality of the good and positive elements that come from other cultures nor does it claim that the best is only found in the traditional context. Attending to cultural assumptions of Asian-Indians allows us to understand the important role these play in formulating and providing informed care.

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Notes

  1. 1.

    Parmatma Saran , The Asian-Indian Experience in the United States (Cambridge, MA: Schenkman Press, 1985), 26.

  2. 2.

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  3. 3.

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  4. 4.

    Karen I. Leonard, The South Asian Americans (Westport, CT: Greenwood Press, 1997), 69.

  5. 5.

    Karen I. Leonard , Making Ethnic Choices: California’s Punjabi Mexican Americans (Philadelphia, PA: Temple University Press, 1992), 113; Leonard, The South Asian Americans, 58.

  6. 6.

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  7. 7.

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  8. 8.

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  9. 9.

    Timothy Fong , The Contemporary Asian American Experience: Beyond the Model Minority (Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Prentice Hall, 2002), 73.

  10. 10.

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  11. 11.

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  12. 12.

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  13. 13.

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  14. 14.

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  15. 15.

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  16. 16.

    George, Coconut Generation . 26.

  17. 17.

    “Indian Americans Third Largest Asian Community in US,” South Asian Chronicle , March 30, 2012.

  18. 18.

    Ibid.

  19. 19.

    “Indian Origin People Close to Being in 100 Americans,” South Asian Chronicle , April 6, 2012.

  20. 20.

    Ibid.

  21. 21.

    Gordon C. Nagayama Hall and Sumie Okazaki , eds., Asian American Psychology: The Science of Lives in Context (Washington, DC: American Psychological Association, 2002), 5.

  22. 22.

    Jean S. Phinney and Linda Line Alpuria , “Ethnic Identity in Older Adolescents from Four Ethnic Groups,” (paper presented at the biennial meeting of the Society for Research in Child Development, Baltimore, MD, April 30, 1987), 36.

  23. 23.

    Ibid.

  24. 24.

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  25. 25.

    Fong . 27.

  26. 26.

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    Sudhir Kakar , The Inner World : A Psychoanalytic Study of Childhood and Society in India (Delhi: Oxford University Press, 1978), 120–122.

  28. 28.

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  29. 29.

    Parmatma Saran and E. Eames, The New Ethnics: Asian-Indians in the United States (New York, NY: Praeger, 1991), 31; U. Segal , “Cultural variables in Asian-Indian Families ,” Families in Society 72, no. 4 (1991): 233–241.

  30. 30.

    Sudhir Kakar , Identity and Adulthood (Delhi: Oxford University Press, 1992). x–xi

  31. 31.

    Sudhir Kakar , Culture and Psyche : Selected Essays, 2nd ed. (Delhi: Oxford University Press, 2007), 22.

  32. 32.

    Sunaina Maira , Desis in the House: Indian American Youth Culture in NYC (Philadelphia, PA: Temple University Press 1969), quoted in Lavina Melwani , “Forging an Indian American Identity: How Authentic an Indian Are You?” Little India, October 31, 1995.

  33. 33.

    Tony, O’Sullivan , Asian-American Affairs: A Face Saved is a Face Earned (New York, NY: Russell Sage, 1999), 7.

  34. 34.

    Ibid.

  35. 35.

    Ibid.

  36. 36.

    T.A. Kulanjiyil, “Landscape: Mental Health Needs of South Asian-Indians ,” in Caring for the South Asian Soul, ed. T.A. Kulanjiyil and D.V. Thomas (Bangalore: Primalogue), 22.

  37. 37.

    Clifford Geertz , “Myth, Symbol and Culture ,” Journal of the American Academy of Arts and Sciences 101, no.1 (Winter, 1972):169.

  38. 38.

    George P. Alexander , New Americans: The Progress of Asian-Indians in America (Cypress, CA: P&P Enterprises, 1997), 33.

  39. 39.

    Alexander, New Americans: The Progress of Asian-Indians in America , 34.

  40. 40.

    Kulanjiyil, “Landscape: Mental Health Needs of South Asian-Indians ,” 22.

  41. 41.

    George . Coconut Generation , 36.

  42. 42.

    See footnote 5, Chap. 1 for clarification.

  43. 43.

    Saran P. The Asian-Indian Experience in the United States , 43. Also see footnote 2 in this chapter.

  44. 44.

    R. S. Durvasalu and G. A. Mylvaganam , “Mental Health of Asian-Indians : Relevant Issues and Community Implications,” Journal of Community Psychology 22, no. 2 (April, 1994): 97–108.

  45. 45.

    Segal , “Cultural Variables in Asian-Indian Families ,” 234.

  46. 46.

    E. Prathikanti , “East Indian Families ,” in Working with Asian Americans: A Guide for Clinicians, ed. Evelyn Lee (New York, NY: Guilford Press, 1997), 113–125; U. Segal , “Asian-Indian Families ,” in Ethnic Families in America: Patterns and Variations, eds. C. Mindel , R. Habenstein , and R. Wright, Jr. (Upper Saddle River, NJ: Prentice Hall, 1998), 331–360.

  47. 47.

    Segal , “Asian-Indian Families ,” 335.

  48. 48.

    Ranganath and Ranganath , “Asian-Indian Children ,” 107.

  49. 49.

    Dhruvarajan , “Ethnic Cultural Retention and Transmission among First Generation Hindu Asian-Indians in Canadian Prairie City ,” 65.

  50. 50.

    Ranganath and Ranganath , “Asian-Indian Children ,” 105.

  51. 51.

    Segal , “Asian-Indian Families ,” 336.

  52. 52.

    K. Ahmed , “Adolescent Development for South Asian American Girls ,” in Emerging Voices: South Asian American Women Redefine Self, Family and Community, ed. S.R. Gupta (Walnut Creek, CA: Alta Mira Press, 1999), 37–49; Saigeetha Jambunathan , Diane C. Burts , and Sarah Pierce , “Comparison of Parenting Attitudes Among Five Ethnic Groups in the United States,” Journal of Comparative Family Studies 31 no. 4 (Autumn, 2000): 395–406.

  53. 53.

    Jambunathan, Burts, and Pierce . “Comparison of Perception of Self-Competence among Five Ethnic Groups of Preschoolers in the United States,” 562.

  54. 54.

    Ahmed , “Adolescent Development for South Asian American Girls ,” 37.

  55. 55.

    Segal , “Asian-Indian Families ,” 337.

  56. 56.

    Durvas Ramani , Suryakantham Durvasula , and Gaithri A. Mylvaganam , “Mental Health of Asian-Indians : Relevant Issues and Community Implications,” 98.

  57. 57.

    Jambunathan, Burts, and Pierce , “Comparison of Perception of Self-Competence among Five Ethnic Groups of Preschoolers in the United States,” 651–660.

  58. 58.

    Ahmed , “Adolescent Development for South Asian American Girls ,” 38.

  59. 59.

    A. K. Das and S. F. Kemp , “Between Two Worlds: Counseling South Asian Immigrants ,” Journal of Multicultural Counseling and Development 25, no. 1 (January, 1997): 23–34.

  60. 60.

    D. Baptiste, “Family Therapy with East Indian Immigrant Parents Rearing Children in the United States: Parental Concerns, Therapeutic Issues, and Recommendations ,” Contemporary Family Therapy, An International Journal 27, no. 3 (September, 2005): 345–366.

  61. 61.

    Saran, Eames and Prathikanti , The New Ethnics: Asian-Indians in the United States, 235.

  62. 62.

    Uma A. Segal , “Cultural Variables in Asian-Indian Families ,” 236.

  63. 63.

    S. Dasgupta , “Gender Roles and Cultural Continuity in the Asian-Indian Immigrant Community in the United States ,” 955.

  64. 64.

    Segal , “Asian-Indian Families ,” 338.

  65. 65.

    S. Gupta , “Forged by Fire: Indian-Americans Reflect on Their Marriages, Divorces, and on Rebuilding Lives , in Emerging Voices: South Asian American Women Redefine Self, Family, and Community, ed. S. R. Gupta (Walnut Creek, CA: AltaMira Press, 1999). 193–221.

  66. 66.

    Saran and Eames , New Ethnics Asian-Indian in the United States . 236.

  67. 67.

    Jambunathan, Burts, and Pierce , “Comparison of Perception of Self-competence Among Five Ethnic Groups of Preschoolers in the United States,” 653.

  68. 68.

    M. J. Sala , “The Conflict between Collectivism and Individualism in Adolescent Development: Asian-Indian Female Decision-Making in Regard to Cultural Normative Behavior, ” (PhD dissertation, Loyola University, Chicago, 2002).

  69. 69.

    India West , June 29, 2012.

  70. 70.

    Segal , “Asian-Indian Families ,” 339.

  71. 71.

    G. Inman, M. G. Constantine, and N. Ladany , “Cultural Value Conflict: An Examination of Asian-Indian Women’s Bicultural Experience ”, in Asian and Pacific Islander Americans: Issues and Concerns for Counseling and Psychotherapy, ed. D.S. Sandhu (New York, NY: Nova Science Publishers, 1999).

  72. 72.

    Segal , “Cultural Variables in Asian-Indian Families ,” 238.

  73. 73.

    Jambunathan, Burts, and Pierce , “Comparison of Perception of Self-competence among Five Ethnic Groups of Preschoolers in the United States,” 654.

  74. 74.

    Phillip Abrams , “The Historical Sociology of Individuals: Identity and the Problem of Generations ,” in Historical Sociology, ed. Phillip Abram (Ithaca, NY: Cornell University Press, 1982), 255.

  75. 75.

    Ibid.

  76. 76.

    George , Coconut Generation , 38–39.

  77. 77.

    Ibid.

  78. 78.

    Prema A. Kurien , “Being Young, Brown, and Hindu: The Identity Struggles of the Second Generation Indian Americans ,” Journal of Contemporary Ethnography 34, no. 4 (August, 2005): 434–369.

  79. 79.

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  80. 80.

    Dasgupta, “Gender Roles and Cultural Continuity in the Asian-Indian Immigrant Community in the United States .” 956.

  81. 81.

    Balasubramaniam . The Relationship between Ethnic Identity, Self-Concept and Acculturation in Asian-Indian Adolescence , 25.

  82. 82.

    Ibid.

  83. 83.

    Min Zhou . “Are Asian Americans Becoming White? 31.

  84. 84.

    R. Gawle , “Desi Chameleon: Gen X Indian Americans Need the Right Blend of East and West ,” India Abroad, November 22, 2002; Hedge, 318.

  85. 85.

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  87. 87.

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  88. 88.

    Ronald Takaki , Strangers from a Different Shore: A History of Asian Americans (Toronto, CA: Little Brown & Co., 1998), 215.

  89. 89.

    George , Coconut Generation , xv.

  90. 90.

    Radha S. Hedge, “Translated Enactments: The Relational Configurations of the Asian-Indian Immigrant Experience,” in Reading in Cultural Contexts, eds. J. Martin T. Nakayama and L. Flores (Mountain View, CA: Mayfield, 1998), 318.

  91. 91.

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  92. 92.

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  93. 93.

    Tom, in an interview with the author, Dallas, TX, February 25, 2011.

  94. 94.

    Thomas Kulanjiyil, “Landscape: Mental Health Needs of South Asian-Indians ,” in Caring for the South Asian Souls: Counseling South Asians in the Western World, eds. Thomas Kulanjiyil and T. V. Thomas (Bangalore: Primalogue Publishing & Media, 2010), 26.

  95. 95.

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  96. 96.

    Chen, “Shaping a Philippine-Chinese American Identity ,” 19.

  97. 97.

    J. H. Taylor, The Halfway Generation: A Study of Asian Youth in Newcastle Upon Tyne (Atlantic Highlands, NJ: Humanities Press, 1976).

  98. 98.

    Ibid.

  99. 99.

    Ravindra S. Johal , The World is Ours: Second Generation South Asians Reconcile Conflicting Expectations, 5.

  100. 100.

    Jamie Matthew, “Trials: Children of Post-1965 Indian Immigrants” (fifth article of a five-part summary series) http://thekkattil.net/documents/1093377989_content.pdf (accessed December 12, 2012).

  101. 101.

    Interviews with the author on various dates.

  102. 102.

    Ravindra S. Johal , The World is Ours: Second Generation South Asians Reconcile Conflicting Expectations , 36.

  103. 103.

    Ibid.

  104. 104.

    Sharma, Walking a Cultural Divide, 55–56.

  105. 105.

    Leela Cherian , “Hitting Out: Violent Behaviors in Asian-Indian American Homes” in Caring for the South Asian Soul: Counseling South Asians in the Western World, eds. Thomas Kulanjiyil and T. V. Thomas (Bangalore: Primalogue, 2010), 48.

  106. 106.

    Ibid.

  107. 107.

    K Ahmed , Adolescent Development for South Asian American Girls .” in Emerging Voices: South Asian American Women Redefine Self, Family and Community, ed. S. R. Gupta (Walnut Creek, CA: Alta Mira Press, 1999), 37–49.

  108. 108.

    P. Arora, “Imperiling the Prestige of the White Woman: Colonial Anxiety and Film Censorship in India ,” Visual Anthropology Review 11, no. 2 (June 1995): 18.

  109. 109.

    Arpana G. Inman, Nicholas Ladany, and Madonna G. Constantine. “Cultural Value Conflict: An Examination of Asian-Indian Women ’s Bicultural Experience,” 32.

  110. 110.

    Monica McGolderick, ed., Revisioning Family Therapy: Race , Culture and Gender in Clinical Practice (New York, NY: The Guildford Press, 1998), 370.

  111. 111.

    Paul G. Herbert, Anthropological Insight for Missionaries (Grand Rapids, MI: Baker Book House, 1985), 213.

  112. 112.

    Ibid.

  113. 113.

    Ibid., 212.

  114. 114.

    Dasgupta Shamita Das , “Gender roles and cultural continuity in the Asian-Indian Immigrant Community in the United States ,” Sex Roles: A Journal of Research Vol. 38, no. 11/12 (June, 1998): 953–975.

  115. 115.

    G. Bhatacharya, “Drug Use among Asian-Indian Adolescents: Identifying Protective/Risk Factors,” Adolescence 33, no. 129 (1998): 169–84.

  116. 116.

    Romolo Dugsin , “Conflict and Healing in Family Experience of Second-Generation Emigrants from India Living in North America ,” Family Process 40, no. 2 (Summer 2001): 233–41.

  117. 117.

    Bhatacharya, “Drug Use Among Asian-Indian Adolescents: Identifying Protective/risk Factors”, 177.

  118. 118.

    Ruban G. Rumbaut and Alejandro Portes , Ethnicities: Children of Immigrants in America (London, UK: University of California Press, Ltd., 2001), 44–69.

  119. 119.

    S. Jambunathan and K. P. Counselman, “Parenting Attitude of Asian-Indian Mothers Living in the United States and in India ,” Early Child Development and Care 172, no. 6 (December, 2002): 659.

  120. 120.

    Terry Arendel, Contemporary Parenting: Challenges and Issues (Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage, 1997), 16.

  121. 121.

    Sodowsky Gargi Roysircar and Carey John C., “Relationships between Acculturation -Related Demographics and Cultural Attitudes of an Asian-Indian Immigrant Group,” Journal of Multicultural Counseling and Development 16, no. 3 (July, 1988): 117–136.

  122. 122.

    Vanaja Dhruvarajan , “Relationships between Acculturation -Related Demographics and Cultural Ethnic Cultural Retention and Transmission among First Generation Hindu Asian-Indians in a Canadian Prairie City,” Journal of Comparative Family Studies 24, no. 1 (Spring, 1993): 63–79.

  123. 123.

    Das and Kemp, “Between Two Worlds: Counseling South Asian Immigrants,” 23–24

  124. 124.

    Ibid.

  125. 125.

    Baptiste. “Family Therapy with East Indian Immigrant Parents Rearing Children in the United States : Parental Concerns, Therapeutic Issues and Recommendations.” 347.

  126. 126.

    Segal , “Cultural Variables in Asian-Indian Families ,” 240.

  127. 127.

    Ibid.

  128. 128.

    Ibid.

  129. 129.

    Romolo Dugsin , “Conflict and Healing in Family Experience of Second-Generation Immigrants from India Living in North America ,” Family Process 40, no. 2 (Summer, 2001): 233–241.

  130. 130.

    Segal , “Cultural Variables in Asian-Indian Families ,” 239.

  131. 131.

    Dugsin , “Conflict and Healing in Family Experience of Second-Generation Immigrants from India Living in North America ,” 235.

  132. 132.

    Mallika Chopra, 100 Promises to My Baby (Emmaus, PA: Rodale Inc., 2005).

  133. 133.

    R. Shams and R. Williams, “Differences in Perceived Parental Care and Protection and Related Psychological Distress between British Asian and Non-Asian Adolescents,” Journal of Adolescence 18, no. 3. (June, 1995): 329–348.

  134. 134.

    Shamita Das Dasgupta “Gender Roles and Cultural Continuity in the Asian-Indian Immigrant Community in the United States ,” 966.

  135. 135.

    Baptiste, “Family Therapy with East Indian Immigrant Parents Rearing Children in the United States ,” 351–357.

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Jacob, V. (2017). Historical and Cultural Factors in Ethnic Identity Formation of Asian-Indian Immigrants: Understanding the Context of Care . In: Counseling Asian Indian Immigrant Families. Palgrave Macmillan, Cham. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-319-64307-6_2

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