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Aviation Security Technologies

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Aviation Security, Privacy, Data Protection and Other Human Rights: Technologies and Legal Principles

Part of the book series: Law, Governance and Technology Series ((ISDP,volume 37))

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Abstract

This chapter will start with an overview of types of aviation security measures as well as their locations – airport, aircraft and beyond. This will allow us to pinpoint the selected security measures more precisely and to provide a broader picture of aviation security measures in general.

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Notes

  1. 1.

    Salter (2008) p. 246.

  2. 2.

    St. John. The Politics of Aviation Security In: Aviation terrorism and security (1999) p. 46.

  3. 3.

    Salter (2008) p. 246.

  4. 4.

    Schneier (2008) p. 69.

  5. 5.

    Amicelli (2012a) p. 3.

  6. 6.

    Chapter 4.

  7. 7.

    Chapter 5.

  8. 8.

    May include diplomats, persons exempted from screening, persons in custody and under administrative control, airline crew, airport staff and other non-passenger, monitoring performance of security equipment, carriage of weapons, travel of armed personnel, etc.

  9. 9.

    E.g. Annex 17; Annex to Regulation (EC) No 300/2008.

  10. 10.

    Salter (2008) p. 256.

  11. 11.

    E.g. the US TSA’s “20 Layers of Security”. http://www.tsa.gov/about-tsa/layers-security (date accessed: 27 Feb 2013).

  12. 12.

    ACI position brief. November 2010. http://www.aci.aero/Media/aci/file/Position%20Briefs/2010/position%20brief_SECURITY%202010.pdf

  13. 13.

    See more in Barry and Mazel. Airport Perimeter Security: Where we’ve been, Where we are, and Where we’re going (2008) p. 990.

  14. 14.

    A wireless barrier beams which provide a warning of intrusion.

  15. 15.

    Regulation (EC) No 300/2008 Article 3. Cf. Annex 17: Airside – “the movement area of an airport, adjacent terrain and buildings or portions thereof, access to which is controlled”, page 1–1.

  16. 16.

    Annex to Commission Regulation (EC) No 272/2009 of 2 April 2009 supplementing the common basic standards on civil aviation security laid down in the Annex to Regulation (EC) No 300/2008 of the European Parliament and of the Council, as amended by Commission Regulation (EU) No 1141/2011 of 10 November 2011 amending Regulation (EC) No 272/2009 supplementing the common basic standards on civil aviation security as regards the use of security scanners at EU airports.

  17. 17.

    Art. 10 of Order of the Ministry of Transport of 25 July 2007 N 104 On approval of rules for pre- and post-flight inspections.

  18. 18.

    §3 of Annex to Regulation (EC) No 300/2008.

  19. 19.

    E.g. Federal Air Marshal Service, including Law Enforcement Officers on some flights in the USA.

  20. 20.

    E.g. Germanwings flight 9525 of 24 March 2015. Baum (2015a).

  21. 21.

    Schneier (2008) p. 69.

  22. 22.

    Neeman (2013) p. 13.

  23. 23.

    Ibid.

  24. 24.

    Ibid.

  25. 25.

    Tirosh and Birnhack (2013) p. 1274.

  26. 26.

    For example, Post-gazette.com in March 2002 informed that new X-ray scanners were tested in the government technical center in New Jersey and were tested on volunteers at several airports.

  27. 27.

    Federal press, 16 Sep 2011. http://fedpress.ru/federal/econom/train/id_250058.html (date accessed: 3 February 2012).

  28. 28.

    Backscatter (low X-ray) technology is based on the X-ray Compton scattering effect. It detects the radiation reflected from the object to form a two-dimensional image, revealing details of the surface of the body and a high resolution image of any external objects. Passengers must stand between two large boxes and raise their arms above their head.

  29. 29.

    UK Department for Transport Guidance. Security scanners implementation information (2015b).

  30. 30.

    Daily Mail Reporter. Airport body scanners are ‘just as likely to kill you as terrorist bombs’. 19 November 2010. http://www.dailymail.co.uk/travel/article-1331185/Airport-body-scanners-just-likely-kill-terrorist-bombs.html

  31. 31.

    Grabell. U.S. Government Glossed Over Cancer Concerns As It Rolled Out Airport X-Ray, ProPublica, 1 November 2011. http://www.propublica.org/article/u.s.-government-glossed-over-cancer-concerns-as-it-rolled-out-airport-x-ray

  32. 32.

    Mick. Despite Allegations of Fraud, TSA Lets Scanner Maker Keep Nearly $300M, Dailytech, 18 January 2013. http://www.dailytech.com/Despite+Allegations+of+Fraud+TSA+Lets+Scanner+Maker+Keep+Nearly+300M/article29691.htm

  33. 33.

    Neeman (2015) p. 26.

  34. 34.

    Huey. When Politics Meets the Hard Realities: Cold Fact, Speculation and Surrealism at the Checkpoint, 19 September 2012, http://www.noquarterusa.net/blog/72258/when-politics-meets-the-hard-realities-cold-fact-speculation-and-surrealism-at-the-checkpoint/

  35. 35.

    TSA. Advanced Imaging Technology. http://www.tsa.gov/traveler-information/advanced-imaging-technology (date accessed: 31 Jan 2015).

  36. 36.

    The UK Secretary of State. Direction to certain aerodrome managers under the Aviation Security Act 1982 relating to security scanners 2015. https://www.gov.uk/government/uploads/system/uploads/attachment_data/file/397617/Consolidated_Scanners_Direction_Redacted.pdf

  37. 37.

    There are several “lists of airports with body scanners” available on the web, but none of them can be considered as full and up to date, as the situation changes constantly. An example of such lists can be found at http://www.flyertalk.com/forum/practical-travel-safety-issues/1138014-complete-list-airports-whole-body-imaging-advanced-imaging-technology-scanner.html

  38. 38.

    Interview with Avinor representative, 22 Oct 2015.

  39. 39.

    Mironenko. Body scanners versus privacy and data protection. In: Computer Law & Security Review. Vol. 27 (2011).

  40. 40.

    National Coordinator for Counterterrorism (Netherlands). Frequently Asked Questions Security Scan. How long has this technology existed? https://english.nctv.nl/themes_en/themes-a-z/Security_and_civil_aviation/Security_Scan/faq-14.aspx

  41. 41.

    Passive millimetre makes an image from natural radiation from the body, with a rough body image and a clearer image of external objects.

  42. 42.

    Health issues will be discussed below.

  43. 43.

    Neeman (2015) p. 24.

  44. 44.

    ECAC. Security Scanners. Update 18.09.2015. https://www.ecac-ceac.org/cep

  45. 45.

    Response to the author from Moscow Domodedovo airport dated 7 Feb 2012, confirmed again on 12 Mar 2015.

  46. 46.

    UK Department for Transport (2015a).

  47. 47.

    TSA. Advanced Imaging Technology. How it works. http://www.tsa.gov/ait-how-it-works (date accessed: 31 Jan 2015).

  48. 48.

    Borlas Secuirty Systems. Provision ATD. http://borlassecurity.ru/equipment_provision.html

  49. 49.

    E.g. the storage of images may have importance for analysis of various data protection principles such as purpose limitation and minimality.

  50. 50.

    This classification is used in ECAC’s Security Scanners. Update 18 Sep 2015. https://www.ecac-ceac.org/cep

  51. 51.

    Data on actual sensitivity is graded confidential and is unavailable to the public. Interview with Avinor representative, 22 Oct 2015.

  52. 52.

    Summary of 1st Body Scanner Task Force meeting, 12 December 2008. Annex IV to European Commission. Impact Assessment on the possible use of security scanners at EU airports of 23 March 2011.

  53. 53.

    Barden. Airport body scanners… all your questions answered. 20 May 2015. http://www.aph.com/community/holidays/airport-body-scanners-all-your-questions-answered/

  54. 54.

    Conversations of the author with employees of Adani and Avinor in the period 2010–2015.

  55. 55.

    Department of Homeland Security (2015) p 2.

  56. 56.

    UK Department for Transport (2015a).

  57. 57.

    Tirosh and Birnhack (2013) p. 1274.

  58. 58.

    Summary of 1st Body Scanner Task Force meeting, 12 December 2008. Annex IV to European Commission. Impact Assessment on the possible use of security scanners at EU airports of 23 March 2011.

  59. 59.

    Interview with L-3 representatives in September 2010.

  60. 60.

    Written correspondence with Borlas representative in January 2012.

  61. 61.

    UK Department for Transport (2013)

  62. 62.

    Reznichenko. Inspection equipment – weapons of anti-terror (2006) http://www.cnews.ru/reviews/free/transport2006/articles/antiterror/

  63. 63.

    European Commission (2011), §136.

  64. 64.

    Department of Homeland Security (2011).

  65. 65.

    Procurement specification for whole body imager devices for checkpoint operations, U.S. Department of Homeland Security, TSA. Final, Version 1.02, 23 Sep 2008.

  66. 66.

    EPIC, Suspension of Body Scanner Program, http://epic.org/privacy/body_scanners/episc_v_dhs_suspension_of_body.html (Aug. 22, 2014) (date accessed: 2 Feb 2015).

  67. 67.

    EPIC Alert, Volume 18.16, 17 Aug 2011. https://epic.org/alert/epic_alert_1816.html

  68. 68.

    Elias (2012) p. 9.

  69. 69.

    L3, ProVision ATD Fact Sheet. http://www.sds.l-3com.com/advancedimaging/provision-at.htm

  70. 70.

    European Commission (2011), §135.

  71. 71.

    L3, ProVision ATD Fact Sheet. http://www.sds.l-3com.com/advancedimaging/provision-at.htm

  72. 72.

    For more about corruption at the check points, see Jones. Checkpoint security: gateways, airports and the architecture of security In: Technologies of Insecurity (2008) p. 97.

  73. 73.

    Schneier. A Waste of Money and Time, The New York Times, 17 October 2012 (2012b) http://www.nytimes.com/roomfordebate/2010/11/22/do-body-scanners-make-us-safer/a-waste-of-money-and-time

  74. 74.

    For more details, see Koffler. The latest Al-Qaeda threat: Body bomb. In: Aviation Security International. Vol. 17 (2011); Bunker. Body cavity bombs: Fantasy or reality? In: Aviation Security International. Vol. 20 (2014).

  75. 75.

    McNeal. Security Scanners in Comparative Perspective. In: Health Matrix. Vol. 22 (2012) p. 475.

  76. 76.

    Stinchfield. TSA Source: Armed Agent Slips Past DFW Body Scanner, NBC, 18 February 2011, http://www.nbcdfw.com/news/local/TSA-Agent-Slips-Through-DFW-Body-Scanner-With-a-Gun-116497568.html

  77. 77.

    Summary of the 2nd Task Force Meeting on Security Scanners, 14 September 2010. Annex IV to European Commission. Impact Assessment on the possible use of security scanners at EU airports of 23 March 2011.

  78. 78.

    Association of Independent Aviation Security Professionals. Vulnerability of Automated Millimeter Wave Imaging Technology: An Unintended Consequence of “One Size Fits All” Checkpoint Screening (2011).

  79. 79.

    Neeman (2013) p. 14.

  80. 80.

    Summary of 1st Body Scanner Task Force meeting, 12 December 2008. Annex IV to European Commission. Impact Assessment on the possible use of security scanners at EU airports of 23 March 2011.

  81. 81.

    Grynpas. Advanced Imaging technology: privacy and health concerns. In: Aviation Security International. Vol. 18 (2012) p. 39.

  82. 82.

    Richardson. TSA plan to replace humans with software at airport scanners generates criticism, Secuirty Director News, August 2011 (2011b), http://www.securitydirectornews.com/?p=article&id=sd201107R4VP0J; Huey “Live Free or Die”: The Unintended Consequences of “One Size Fits All” Aviation Security Screening, 5 March 2011 (2011a), http://www.noquarterusa.net/blog/57130/“live-free-or-die”-the-unintended-consequences-of-“one-size-fits-all”-aviation-security-screening/

  83. 83.

    Cochrane (2012) p. 41.

  84. 84.

    Huey (2011a) and Association of Independent Aviation Security Professionals (2011).

  85. 85.

    Association of Independent Aviation Security Professionals (2011).

  86. 86.

    Ibid.

  87. 87.

    The analysis considered threat probability, risk reduction, losses, and security costs. Stewart and Mueller. Cost-benefit analysis of advanced imaging technology full body scanners for airline passenger security screening. In: Journal of homeland security and emergency management. Vol. 8 (2011) p. 15.

  88. 88.

    Commission Implementing Regulation (EU) No 1147/2011 of 11 November 2011 amending Regulation (EU) No 185/2010 implementing the common basic standards on civil aviation security as regards the use of security scanners at EU airports.

  89. 89.

    Tirosh and Birnhack (2013) p. 1283.

  90. 90.

    Eze Now Showing at MMIA: Nude Images of Passengers. (2010).

  91. 91.

    Zetter. Female Passengers Say They Were Targeted for TSA Body Scanners. Wired, 4 February 2012, http://www.wired.com/2012/02/female-body-scans/.

  92. 92.

    Established by the European Parliament and European Council. Regulation (EC) 45/2001 of 18 Dec 2000 on the protection of individuals with regard to the processing of personal data by the institutions and bodies of the Community and on the free movement of such data. EDPS is an independent supervisory authority that regulates the processing of data.

  93. 93.

    EDPS letter to Commission Vice-president Sim Kallas of 1 July 2010.

  94. 94.

    EDPS comments on the draft proposals for a Commission Regulation amending Regulation (EC) No 272/2009 and for a Commission implementing Regulation amending Regulation (EC) No 185/2010 on common basic standards on civil aviation security as regards the use of security scanners at EU airports.

  95. 95.

    EPIC Alert, Volume 18.16, 17 Aug 2011. https://epic.org/alert/epic_alert_1816.html

  96. 96.

    Tirosh and Birnhack (2013) p. 1283.

  97. 97.

    FRA. The use of body scanners: 10 questions and answers (2010b).

  98. 98.

    Tirosh and Birnhack (2013) p. 1289.

  99. 99.

    Ibid. p. 1267.

  100. 100.

    See McFeeley v. the UK, No. 8317/78, 15 May 1980.

  101. 101.

    Finn et al. (2013) p. 12.

  102. 102.

    Tirosh and Birnhack (2013) p. 1268.

  103. 103.

    Ibid.

  104. 104.

    Ibid. p. 1299.

  105. 105.

    Australian Department of Infrustructure and Transport. The use of body scanners for aviation security screening in Australia: Privacy Impact Assessment, 2012. Page 24.

  106. 106.

    Queally. Transgender Woman Says TSA Detained, Humiliated Her Over Body ‘Anomaly.’ Los Angeles Times, 22 Sept 2015, http://www.latimes.com/nation/nationnow/la-na-nn-tsa-transgender-20150921-story.html

  107. 107.

    Mountfield. Advice in the matter of the human rights and equality implications of the introduction of full body scanners at airports. In: Matrix Chambers. Vol. 8 (2010). p. 6 and European Commission (2011), §§133–134.

  108. 108.

    Tirosh and Birnhack (2013) p. 1300.

  109. 109.

    Taylor. Bending Broken Rules: The Fourth Amendment Implications of Full-Body Scanners in Preflight Screening. In: Richmond Journal of Law and Technology. Vol. 17 (2010) p. 15.

  110. 110.

    Elias (2012) p. 8 citing International Commission on Non-Ionizing Radiation Protection, ICNIRP Statement—Health Issues Associated With Millimeter Wave Whole Body Imaging Technology, Health Physics, 102(1), pp. 81–82, January 2012.

  111. 111.

    UK Department for Transport (2015a) and L3, SafeView Fact Sheet. http://www.sds.l-3com.com/advancedimaging/safeview.htm

  112. 112.

    Auvinen. Ionising Radiation: Myths & Realities, Body Search 2015 Conference Program, http://network.icom.museum/fileadmin/user_upload/minisites/icms/pdfs/Body_Search_SPEAKER_PROGRAMME.pdf

  113. 113.

    Ibid.

  114. 114.

    Neeman (2015) p. 25.

  115. 115.

    Ibid. p. 26.

  116. 116.

    Ibid.

  117. 117.

    Aviaport Digest. 15 Russian airports will accommodate scanners to curb drug trafficking. 13 November 2014, http://www.aviaport.ru/digest/2014/11/13/314589.html

  118. 118.

    Schiphol. Security Scan at Amsterdam Airport Schiphol. http://www.schiphol.nl/Travellers/AtSchiphol/CheckinControl/SecurityChecksUponDeparture/SecurityScan.ht

  119. 119.

    Koffler (2011) p. 46.

  120. 120.

    Neeman. Effectively screening people: Pat down searchers, wands, archways and portals. In: Aviation Security International. Vol. 19 (2013) p. 15.

  121. 121.

    Sosenko. Transmission X-ray: Advantages & Successes, Body Search 2015 Conference Program, http://network.icom.museum/fileadmin/user_upload/minisites/icms/pdfs/Body_Search_SPEAKER_PROGRAMME.pdf

  122. 122.

    Neeman (2015) p. 26.

  123. 123.

    Baum. Searching bodies: the civil liberties dilemma. In: Aviation Security International. Vol. 21 (2015c) p. 1.

  124. 124.

    Neeman (2015) p. 24.

  125. 125.

    Neeman (2013) p. 15.

  126. 126.

    Wagenaar. Zooming in on ‘heterotopia’: CCTV-operator practices at Schiphol Airport. In: Information Polity. Vol. 17 (2012). p. 9.

  127. 127.

    The SecurityLion. New Surveillance Code of Practice “will not slow UK CCTV market growth”. 21 August 2013, https://thesecuritylion.wordpress.com/2013/08/21/new-surveillance-code-of-practice-will-not-slow-uk-cctv-market-growth/

  128. 128.

    Annereau. Regulating CCTV use in the UK. March 2014, http://united-kingdom.taylorwessing.com/globaldatahub/article_regulating_cctv.html

  129. 129.

    Courtney. The great Olympics zoom boom [CCTV services]. In: Engineering & Technology. Vol. 7 (2012). p. 60.

  130. 130.

    NRK. Overvåkingen av Oslo øker, men kriminaliteten går ikke ned. 12 November 2011, http://www.nrk.no/ostlandssendingen/_-overvakning-gir-ikke-resultater-1.7869062

  131. 131.

    RiaNovosti. 70% of crimes in Moscow are disclosed using CCTV systems. 24 March 2015, http://ria.ru/moscow/20150324/1054179260.html

  132. 132.

    Houlis (2010).

  133. 133.

    Cmt-VC Company. Video surveillance systems. http://www.smt-vc.ru/catalog/sistemy-videonablyudeniya/

  134. 134.

    Medwecki. CCTV: ensuring effective surveillance at airports. In: Aviation Security International. Vol. 19 (2013) p. 34.

  135. 135.

    E.g. EPIC. EPIC Framework for Protecting Privacy & Civil Liberties If CCTV Systems Are Contemplated (2008) and ACLU. What’s Wrong With Public Video Surveillance? 2002, https://www.aclu.org/technology-and-liberty/whats-wrong-public-video-surveillance

  136. 136.

    Gilbert (2007) p. 34.

  137. 137.

    Puzanov. Video camera in the law? In: EZH-Jurist. Vol. 8 (2012). p. 10.

  138. 138.

    RiaNovosti (2015).

  139. 139.

    Privacy International (2011) p. 822.

  140. 140.

    Welsh and Farringtom. Crime prevention effects of closed circuit television: a systematic review. Home Office Research Study 252, August 2002, http://www.popcenter.org/Responses/video_surveillance/PDFs/Welsh%26Farrington_2002.pdf; Armitage. To CCTV or not to CCTV. In: A review of current research into the effectiveness of CCTV systems in reducing crime. Londen: Nacro (2002).; EPIC (2008); Larsen. Setting the watch: privacy and the ethics of CCTV surveillance, Hart Publishing (2011).

  141. 141.

    See any web-site of any CCTV provider.

  142. 142.

    Article 29 Data Protection Working Party (2004).

  143. 143.

    See e.g. ACLU (2002), Larsen (2011), Ratcliffe Video surveillance of public places (2006) p. 21.

  144. 144.

    Agustina. The impact of CCTV on fundamental rights and crime prevention strategies: The case of the Catalan Control Commission of Video surveillance Devices. In: Computer Law & Security Review. Vol. 27 (2011). p. 169.

  145. 145.

    Elliott. Smile! The TSA is taping you — and here’s what you need to know about it. 21 October 2009, http://elliott.org/blog/smile-the-tsa-is-taping-you-and-heres-what-you-need-to-know-about-it/

  146. 146.

    Richardson. Minneapolis airport to spend $20m on new surveillance system, Secuirty Director News, May 2012, http://www.securitydirectornews.com/public-sector/minneapolis-airport-spend-20m-new-surveillance-system

  147. 147.

    Blank. Surveillance Cameras Set To Keep Watch In Airliners. New York Times, 6 April 2002, http://www.nytimes.com/2002/04/06/business/surveillance-cameras-set-to-keep-watch-in-airliners.html

  148. 148.

    PRNewswire. Research and Markets. 20 April 2015, http://www.prnewswire.com/news-releases/global-commercial-aircraft-video-surveillance-systems-cockpit-door-surveillance-systems-cabin-surveillance-system-ground-maneuvering-camera-system-flight-safety-camera-systems-market-2014-2020-300068367

  149. 149.

    Carli (2008) p. 4.

  150. 150.

    Closed system allows watching retrospectively, while open system refers to images on the camera as viewed in real time.

  151. 151.

    See Price (2013) p. 213 and Medwecki (2013) p. 35.

  152. 152.

    Cardiff Airport. CCTV Code of Practice (2013).

  153. 153.

    Transportation Security Administration (2011) p. 120.

  154. 154.

    Houlis (2010).

  155. 155.

    Siemens. CCTV: Analogue or IP? http://www.ssp-cctv.com/ssp-cctv/cctv_analogueorip.php, 2015.

  156. 156.

    Home Office (2013).

  157. 157.

    Siemens. CCTV: Analogue or IP? http://www.ssp-cctv.com/ssp-cctv/cctv_analogueorip.php, 2015.

  158. 158.

    Price (2013) p. 214.

  159. 159.

    Batt. The use of video surveillance in today’s airports. In: Aviation Security International. Vol. 19 (2013) pp. 18–19.

  160. 160.

    Medwecki (2013) p. 36.

  161. 161.

    Dallmeier. Dallmeier CCTV / IP video surveillance solutions for airports. http://www.dallmeier.com/en/solutions/markets/airport/airport.html

  162. 162.

    Vasilyev. Modern airport: integrated system of video surveillance. In: Security Systems. Vol. 6 (2010).

  163. 163.

    PACT The Privacy & Security – Research Paper Series: 2012 49.

  164. 164.

    Transportation Security Administration (2011) p. 126.

  165. 165.

    Dallmeier. Dallmeier CCTV / IP video surveillance solutions for airports.

  166. 166.

    Transportation Security Administration (2011) p. 128.

  167. 167.

    Gagvani. Introduction to video analytics. EETimes, 22 August 2008, http://www.eetimes.com/document.asp?doc_id=1273834

  168. 168.

    Regazzoni [et al.] Video analytics for surveillance: Theory and practice [from the guest editors]. In: Signal Processing Magazine, IEEE. Vol. 27 (2010) p. 16.

  169. 169.

    Batt (2013) pp. 18–19.

  170. 170.

    Meads (2015) p. 18.

  171. 171.

    Millward. Airports to get ‘virtual tripwire’ CCTV. The Telegraph, 12 April 2008, http://www.telegraph.co.uk/news/uknews/1556555/Airports-to-get-virtual-tripwire-CCTV.html-

  172. 172.

    Houlis (2010).

  173. 173.

    Interview with Avinor representative, 22 Oct 2015.

  174. 174.

    Houlis (2010).

  175. 175.

    Department of Homeland Security (2012b).

  176. 176.

    Donald and Corkill. Exploiting CCTV systems: Enhancing surveillance, situational awareness and intelligence acquisition. In: Aviation Security International. Vol. 18 (2012) p. 14.

  177. 177.

    Ratcliffe (2006) p. 35.

  178. 178.

    Armitage (2002).

  179. 179.

    Ampersecurity. Video surveillance in airport. http://www.ampersecurity.ru/novosti-industrii/videonablyudenie-v-aeroportu (date accessed: 24 Dec 2014).

  180. 180.

    Information Commissioner’s Office (2014).

  181. 181.

    Medwecki (2013) p. 34.

  182. 182.

    Ibid. p. 35.

  183. 183.

    Medwecki (2013) p. 34.

  184. 184.

    Batt (2013) pp. 18–19.

  185. 185.

    Houlis (2010).

  186. 186.

    The Glasgow International Airport attack occurred on 30 June 2007.

  187. 187.

    Millward (2008).

  188. 188.

    Batt (2013) pp. 18–19.

  189. 189.

    Wan. Video analytics: from access control to behaviour detection and beyond. In: Aviation Security International. Vol. 17 (2011). p. 37.

  190. 190.

    Karl. Integrated CCTV: more than a surveillance tool. In: Aviation Security International. Vol. 15 (2009). p. 35.

  191. 191.

    Houlis (2010).

  192. 192.

    Medwecki (2013) p. 36.

  193. 193.

    Regazzoni et al. (2010) p. 16.

  194. 194.

    Gagvani (2008).

  195. 195.

    Meads (2015) p. 21.

  196. 196.

    Home Office (2013).

  197. 197.

    Article 29 Data Protection Working Party (2004).

  198. 198.

    Ibid.

  199. 199.

    Cardiff Airport (2013).

  200. 200.

    Gilbert (2007) p. 33.

  201. 201.

    Gagvani (2008).

  202. 202.

    Batt (2013) pp. 18–19.

  203. 203.

    Crystal. FAQ: UK Citizens and CCTV Privacy Rights. Civil Rights Movement, 7 October 2015, http://www.civilrightsmovement.co.uk/faq-uk-citizens-cctv-privacy-rights.html

  204. 204.

    Finn et al. (2013) p. 16.

  205. 205.

    ACLU (2002).

  206. 206.

    EPIC (2008).

  207. 207.

    Cardiff Airport (2013).

  208. 208.

    Peck v. the United Kingdom, No. 44647/98, 28 Jan 2003, § 59.

  209. 209.

    Finn and Wright. Unmanned aircraft systems: Surveillance, ethics and privacy in civil applications. In: Computer Law & Security Review. Vol. 28 (2012b) p. 192.

  210. 210.

    Vermeulen and Bellanova (2013) p. 304.

  211. 211.

    Home Office (2013).

  212. 212.

    Fingerprints were used by Chinese merchants to settle business transactions; fingerprints and footprints were used by parents to differentiate children. Liu. Bio-privacy: legal challenges for privacy regulations of biometric identification and authentication (2010) p. 3.

  213. 213.

    Ibid. p. 3.

  214. 214.

    Ibid. p. 1.

  215. 215.

    Article 29 Data Protection Working Party (2012b).

  216. 216.

    GDPR Art.4(14).

  217. 217.

    Liu (2010) p. 45.

  218. 218.

    Article 29 Data Protection Working Party (2012b).

  219. 219.

    Ibid.

  220. 220.

    Liu (2010) p. 50.

  221. 221.

    Meads (2015) p. 19.

  222. 222.

    Travel documents include identification documents such as passports and supporting documents such as visas.

  223. 223.

    ICAO, Doc 9303, Machine Readable Travel Document, Seventh Edition, 2015.

  224. 224.

    See, e.g. Commission Decision of 28 June 2006 laying down the technical specifications on the standards for security features and biometrics in passports and travel documents issued by Member States.

  225. 225.

    See more details in Finn. The identity challenge: verifying travel document integrity, quashing breeder document fraud. In: Aviation Security International. Vol. 21 (2015).

  226. 226.

    This use is beyond the scope of this book, which, as noted in Chap. 1, is focusing on measures relating to passengers.

  227. 227.

    Airports Council International (2005).

  228. 228.

    COPRA (2013).

  229. 229.

    SITA. The Airport IT Trends Survey 2016.

  230. 230.

    SITA. The Airline IT Trends Survey 2016.

  231. 231.

    COPRA (2013).

  232. 232.

    SITA. The Airport IT Trends Survey 2016.

  233. 233.

    Martin. Alaska Airlines to consider using fingerprints to screen passengers. Los Angeles Times, 24 October 2014, http://www.latimes.com/business/la-fi-alaska-airlines-fingerprint-scanners-20141024-story.html

  234. 234.

    Schiphol. Privium: your benefits. http://www.schiphol.nl/Travellers/AtSchiphol/Privium/PriviumBenefits.htm

  235. 235.

    Bradley (2015).

  236. 236.

    Clear. https://www.clearme.com

  237. 237.

    Baum. Malaysian Airlines Flight MH370: A “deliberate act” but how, by whom, and why? In: Aviation Security International. Vol. 20 (2014) p. 21.

  238. 238.

    Ibid.

  239. 239.

    Naudin (2014) p. 44.

  240. 240.

    Finn. Enhanced documentation control: An aviation security perspective. In: Aviation Security International. Vol. 18 (2012) p. 38.

  241. 241.

    COPRA (2013).

  242. 242.

    Medwecki (2013) p. 36.

  243. 243.

    Pocs. Legally compatible design of future biometric systems for crime prevention. In: Innovation: The European Journal of Social Science Research. Vol. 26 (2013). p. 36.

  244. 244.

    Article 29 Data Protection Working Party (2012b).

  245. 245.

    Ibid.

  246. 246.

    Article 29 Data Protection Working Party (2012b).

  247. 247.

    COPRA (2013).

  248. 248.

    Bradley (2015).

  249. 249.

    Vasilyev (2010).

  250. 250.

    Woollacott. Life after privacy: the next generation of public surveillance technology is already here. NewStatesman, 7 July 2014, http://www.newstatesman.com/politics/2014/07/life-after-privacy-introducing-next-generation-public-surveillance-technology

  251. 251.

    Badii et al. (2012) p. 367.

  252. 252.

    Meads (2015) p. 20.

  253. 253.

    Badii et al. (2012) p. 368.

  254. 254.

    Liu (2010) p. 50.

  255. 255.

    Watson. Facial recognition – the death knell of anonymity? BBC, 26 August 2014, http://www.bbc.com/news/uk-england-28307929

  256. 256.

    Gold. Border control biometrics and surveillance. In: Biometric Technology Today. Vol. 2012 (2012).

  257. 257.

    Gilbert (2007) p. 23.

  258. 258.

    Watson (2014).

  259. 259.

    Article 29 Data Protection Working Party (2012b).

  260. 260.

    Porter. Surveillance technologies in society. Speech of October 2014, published on 18 November 2014, https://www.gov.uk/government/speeches/iriss-respect-and-surveille-event

  261. 261.

    Badii et al. (2012) p. 367.

  262. 262.

    About Heathrow Airport. http://www.heathrowairport.com/about-us/company-news-and-information/company-information/facts-and-figures

  263. 263.

    Article 29 Data Protection Working Party (2012b).

  264. 264.

    Bradley (2015).

  265. 265.

    Meads (2015) p. 20.

  266. 266.

    Watson (2014).

  267. 267.

    Porter (2014).

  268. 268.

    Ibid. Another question is under what legal basis Interpol has the authority to collect private data on individuals without their consent given its status as a non-governmental organization.

  269. 269.

    EPIC. EPIC Opposes DHS Biometric Collection. http://epic.org/2013/06/epic-opposes-dhs-biometric-col.html

  270. 270.

    EDRi-gram 13.21, 4 Nov 2015 https://edri.org/edri-gram/13-21/

  271. 271.

    Tung. From fingerprints to facial scans: Why the French want biometrics on all EU travelers. ZDNet. 13 October 2015. http://www.zdnet.com/article/from-fingerprints-to-facial-scans-why-the-french-want-biometrics-on-all-eu-travellers/

  272. 272.

    Porter (2014) and EPIC, Biometric Identifiers. http://epic.org/privacy/biometrics/

  273. 273.

    Watson (2014).

  274. 274.

    Hopkins and Morris. ‘Innocent people’ on police photos database. BBC. 3 February 2015. http://www.bbc.com/news/uk-31105678

  275. 275.

    Medwecki (2013) p. 36.

  276. 276.

    Article 29 Data Protection Working Party (2012b).

  277. 277.

    Pocs (2013) p. 37.

  278. 278.

    Badii et al. (2012) p. 369.

  279. 279.

    Zoufal (2008) p. 93.

  280. 280.

    Ohm. Broken promises of privacy: Responding to the surprising failure of anonymization. In: UCLA Law Review. Vol. 57 (2010). p. 1704.

  281. 281.

    Vermeulen and Bellanova (2013) p. 303, Badii et al. (2012) p. 367, for more details, see Ohm (2010).

  282. 282.

    For more details, see Ohm (2010).

  283. 283.

    Badii et al. (2012) p. 370.

  284. 284.

    OECD Privacy Framework 2013.

  285. 285.

    Article 29 Data Protection Working Party (2012b).

  286. 286.

    Airports Council International (2005).

  287. 287.

    Commissioner for the use and retention of biometric material. Annual Report 2014 (2014).

  288. 288.

    Wikipedia, Offender profiling. https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Offender_profiling

  289. 289.

    Ibid.

  290. 290.

    Quinlan (2015) p. 36.

  291. 291.

    Clarke (1993) p. 405.

  292. 292.

    Poullet (2009) p. 214.

  293. 293.

    E.g. the UK Border Force conducted manual analysis of PNR data. See Vine. ‘Exporting the border’? An inspection of e-Borders. March 2013. http://icinspector.independent.gov.uk/wp-content/uploads/2013/10/An-Inspection-of-eborders.pdf, p. 17.

  294. 294.

    Article 29 Data Protection Working Party Advice paper on essential elements of a definition and a provision on profiling within the EU General Data Protection Regulation (2013) §1. It is based on definition of Art. 1(e) of Council of Europe Recommendation CM/Rec(2010)13 of the Committee of Ministers to member states on the protection of individuals with regard to automatic processing of personal data in the context of profiling of 23 November 2010.

  295. 295.

    Poullet (2009) p. 214.

  296. 296.

    IATA Press release, 5 Mar 2013. http://www.iata.org/pressroom/pr/Pages/2013-03-05-02.aspx

  297. 297.

    A good example of such “failure” is 22 July 2011 in Norway.

  298. 298.

    Interpol. Media release. Global aviation security requires the industry to step in where governments fail, Interpol Chief tells IATA meeting. 7 June 2011. http://www.interpol.int/News-and-media/News/2011/PR048

  299. 299.

    Forest. The Modern Terrorist Threat to Aviation Security. In: Perspectives on Terrorism. Vol. 1 (2007) p. 12.

  300. 300.

    Pub. L. 104–264, title III, §307, Oct. 9, 1996, 110 Stat. 3253.

  301. 301.

    ACI position brief. November 2010. http://www.aci.aero/Media/aci/file/Position%20Briefs/2010/position%20brief_SECURITY%202010.pdf

  302. 302.

    Department of Homeland Security. Privacy Impact Assessment for Analytical Framework for Intelligence (AFI) (2012a) p 1.

  303. 303.

    Ibid. p 27.

  304. 304.

    EPIC Alert, Volume 22.15, 14 Aug 2015. EPIC Pursues Lawsuit over Secret Government Profiling Program.

  305. 305.

    Leese. The new profiling: Algorithms, black boxes, and the failure of anti-discriminatory safeguards in the European Union. In: Security Dialogue. Vol. 45 (2014) p. 494.

  306. 306.

    Yehoshua. Terrorist profiling: analysing our adversaries personalities. In: Aviation Security International. Vol. 17 (2011) p. 23.

  307. 307.

    Solove. Data mining and the security-liberty debate. In: The University of Chicago Law Review (2008a) p. 345.

  308. 308.

    Ravich. Is Airline Passenger Profiling Necessary. In: U. Miami L. Rev. Vol. 62 (2007) p. 56.

  309. 309.

    Solove (2008a) p. 353.

  310. 310.

    Fuster [et al.] Profiling in the European Union: A high-risk practice. In: INEX Policy Brief. Vol. 10 (2010) p. 2 citing Taipale. The privacy implications of government data mining programs. In: Testimony before the US Senate Committee on the Judiciary. Vol. 10 (2007) p. 6 and Lyon Surveillance as social sorting: Privacy, risk, and digital discrimination (2003b) p. 20.

  311. 311.

    Raffel (2007) p. 2.

  312. 312.

    Schneier (2008) p. 7.

  313. 313.

    See Chap. 2.

  314. 314.

    Clarke (1993) p. 403.

  315. 315.

    EDRi-gram 13.21, 4 Nov 2015 https://edri.org/edri-gram/13-21/

  316. 316.

    Donald and Corkill (2012) pp. 12, 15.

  317. 317.

    Quinlan (2015) p. 36.

  318. 318.

    E.g. Order of the Ministry of Transport of 25 July 2007 N 104 On approval of rules for pre- and post-flight inspections, Art.51.

  319. 319.

    Karber (2001) p. 802.

  320. 320.

    Palmer. What’s So Great About Israel Security? Slate. 3 January 2011. http://www.slate.com/articles/news_and_politics/explainer/2011/01/whats_so_great_about_israeli_security.html

  321. 321.

    Guttman. Israel’s Airport Security, Object of Envy, Is Hard to Emulate Here. Forward. 6 January 2010. http://forward.com/news/122781/israel-s-airport-security-object-of-envy-is-hard/

  322. 322.

    Palmer (2011).

  323. 323.

    Ibid.

  324. 324.

    Order of the Ministry of Transport of 25.07.2007 N 104 On approval of rules for pre- and post flight inspections. Art. 51.

  325. 325.

    Rettner. New Airplane Passenger Screening Method Outshines Old. Live Science. 6 November 2014. http://www.livescience.com/48661-airport-screening-conversation.html

  326. 326.

    For more details, see Ormerod. Finding a Needle in a Haystack: Toward a Psychologically Informed Method for Aviation Security Screening (2014). In: Journal of Experimental Psychology: General, Vol. 144, No. 1 (2015) pp. 76 – 84.

  327. 327.

    Crystal (2015).

  328. 328.

    Bunker (2014) p. 20.

  329. 329.

    Quinlan (2015) p. 36.

  330. 330.

    Ibid.

  331. 331.

    Perry. The Screening of Passengers by Observation Techniques Programme: analysing the issues. In: Aviation Security International. Vol. 17 (2011). p. 13.

  332. 332.

    Richardson. Congressional report: TSA suffers from “bureaucratic morass and mismanagement”. Secuirty Director News, 22 November 2011 (2011a), http://www.securitydirectornews.com/public-sector/congressional-report-tsa-suffers-bureaucratic-morass-and-mismanagement

  333. 333.

    GAO TSA’s Managed Inclusion Process Expands Passenger Expedited Screening, But TSA Has Not Tested Its Security Effectiveness (2015b).

  334. 334.

    Donald and Corkill (2012) pp. 12, 15.

  335. 335.

    Woollacott (2014).

  336. 336.

    Badii et al. (2012) p. 367.

  337. 337.

    Transportation Security Administration (2011) p. 124.

  338. 338.

    Vermeulen and Bellanova (2013) p. 299.

  339. 339.

    Daily news. In-flight surveillance could foil terrorists in the sky. New Scientist. 29 May 2008. https://www.newscientist.com/article/dn14013-in-flight-surveillance-could-foil-terrorists-in-the-sky/

  340. 340.

    Vermeulen and Bellanova (2013) p. 299.

  341. 341.

    Article 29 Data Protection Working Party (2004).

  342. 342.

    Daily news (2008).

  343. 343.

    Vermeulen and Bellanova (2013) p. 299.

  344. 344.

    Griffiths. Stress response: a physiological analysis. In: Aviation Security International. Vol. 17 (2011) p. 40.

  345. 345.

    Vlahos. Surveillance society: New high-tech cameras are watching you. In: Popular Mechanics (2008).

  346. 346.

    Vermeulen and Bellanova (2013) p. 300.

  347. 347.

    Griffiths (2011) p. 40.

  348. 348.

    Surveillance system for aircraft interior. http://www.google.com/patents/US6864805

  349. 349.

    The Aircraft Interiors International. News. http://www.aircraftinteriorsinternational.com/news.php?NewsID=11709

  350. 350.

    KID-System. Video based Security System. http://www.kid-systeme.de/products-videosurveillance.html

  351. 351.

    The Aircraft Interiors International. News. http://www.aircraftinteriorsinternational.com/news.php?NewsID=11709

  352. 352.

    Blank (2002).

  353. 353.

    SAFEE. http://ec.europa.eu/research/transport/projects/items/safee_en.htm

  354. 354.

    Daily news (2008).

  355. 355.

    CCTV Camera Pros. Audio Surveillance Equipment Laws. http://www.cctvcamerapros.com/Audio-Surveillance-Equipment-Laws-s/244.htm

  356. 356.

    Ibid.

  357. 357.

    Borogan and Soldatov. Magic of persecution. Bolshoy Gorod. 24 November 2011. http://bg.ru/society/magiya_presledovaniya-9636/

  358. 358.

    ICAO PNR Guidelines (2010) §2.1.1.

  359. 359.

    Airlines International, Airline Data – Know Your Passengers. 1 December 2010. http://airlines.iata.org/analysis/airline-data-know-your-passengers

  360. 360.

    European Commission. Passenger Name Record (PNR). http://ec.europa.eu/dgs/home-affairs/what-we-do/policies/police-cooperation/passenger-name-record/index_en.htm

  361. 361.

    See Lyon (2003a) pp. 13–20.

  362. 362.

    See more details: Ravich. Airline passenger profiling systems after 9/11: Personal privacy versus National Security. In: Journal of the Transportation Research Forum, Vol. 44, No. 2 (2010) p. 131 citing Rhee. Rational and Constitutional Approaches to Airline Safety in the Face of Terrorist Threats. In: DePaul L. Rev. Vol. 49 (2000).

  363. 363.

    Ravich (2010) p. 131.

  364. 364.

    European Commission. Roadmap. Legislative proposal and Communication on the transfer of passenger data to third countries. 10/2013.

  365. 365.

    See: Ntouvas. Air Passenger Data Transfer to the USA: the Decision of the ECJ and latest developments. In: International Journal of Law and Information Technology. Vol. 16 (2008).

  366. 366.

    Council of the European Union, Information by the Commission on the PNR legislation adopted by Mexico and the Republic of Argentina requesting the transfer of PNR data from the EU, note of 5 March 2015.

  367. 367.

    In 2013, a total of €50 million, made available by the Commission, was distributed among 14 EU countries which presented projects for developing their national PNR schemes. European Parliamentary Research Service The proposed EU passenger name records (PNR) directive. Revived in the new security context (2015).

  368. 368.

    See Nielsen and Rettman. Russia blames EU for airline data fiasco. EUobserver, 11 June 2013, http://euobserver.com/justice/120450

  369. 369.

    For more details, see Enerstvedt (2014).

  370. 370.

    On 14 July 2015, negotiations for an EU-Mexico PNR data transfer deal were formally launched (the Council gave a mandate to the Commission on 23 June 2015). http://www.europarl.europa.eu/news/en/news-room/content/20150123BKG12902/html/EU-Passenger-Name-Record-(PNR)-proposal-an-overview.

  371. 371.

    Directive (EU) 2016/681 of the European Parliament and of the Council of 27 April 2016 on the use of passenger name record (PNR) data for the prevention, detection, investigation and prosecution of terrorist offences and serious crime.

  372. 372.

    Article 2.

  373. 373.

    Statewatch. EU-PNR: European Parliament has “egg on its face”. 4 April 2016. http://statewatch.org/news/2016/apr/eu-pnr-ep-egg.htm

  374. 374.

    IATA. Aviation security and facilitation. http://www.iata.org/whatwedo/security/Pages/index.aspx

  375. 375.

    Currently, foreign air carries do not have access to the Russian domestic aviation market.

  376. 376.

    Confirmed during telephone conversation with the Operator’s employee 20 Nov 2015.

  377. 377.

    ICAO, 37th Assembly (2010) Resolutions.

  378. 378.

    Under the UN Charter, the Security Council has primary responsibility for the maintenance of international peace and security. Its five permanent members are the USA, the UK, Russia, France and China. http://www.un.org/en/sc/

  379. 379.

    United Nations Security Council. Statement by the President of the Security Council. http://www.un.org/en/sc/ctc/docs/2014/PRST_EN.pdf, 2014.

  380. 380.

    European Parliamentary Research Service (2015).

  381. 381.

    Association of European Airlines. Ensuring secure aviation while minimising the hassle for passengers, 2014, http://www.aea.be/component/attachments/attachments.html?id=93&task=view, IATA and AEA. Joint letter to the European Parliament, Sept 2014, https://netzpolitik.org/wp-upload/2014-09_AEA_IATA_Joint_letter_on_EU_PNR.pdf

  382. 382.

    Lufthansa Group. Airline Perspective on Handling Data Protection Considerations, 13 Oct 2014, http://www.icao.int/EURNAT/Other%20Meetings%20Seminars%20and%20Workshops/2014%20FAL%20Seminar%20Paris/Day1%20PPT27%20E.pdf

  383. 383.

    Wolff (2012) p. 4.

  384. 384.

    Vine (2013).

  385. 385.

    BBC. MEPs back deal to give air passenger data to US. 12 April 2012. http://www.bbc.co.uk/news/world-europe-17764365

  386. 386.

    Vine (2013).

  387. 387.

    DHS. Preventing Terrorism and Enhancing Security. http://www.dhs.gov/preventing-terrorism-and-enhancing-security. FRA. Opinion of the European Union Agency for Fundamental Rights on the Proposal for a Directive on the use of Passenger Name Record (PNR) data for the prevention, detection, investigation and prosecution of terrorist offences and serious crime (COM(2011) 32 final) (2011b).

  388. 388.

    Omar. Risk Based Airport Security Approach. In: International Journal of Computer Science: Theory, Technology and Applications (IJCS). Vol. 3 (2014). p. 21.

  389. 389.

    Council Directive 2004/82/EC of 29 April 2004 on the obligation of carriers to communicate passenger data.

  390. 390.

    European Parliamentary Research Service (2015).

  391. 391.

    Ibid.

  392. 392.

    Article 29 Data Protection Working Party Opinion 10/2011 on the proposal for a Directive of the European Parliament and of the Council on the use of passenger name record data for the prevention, detection, investigation and prosecution of terrorist offences and serious crime (2011), European Data Protection Supervisor. Opinion on the Proposal for a Directive of the European Parliament and of the Council on the use of Passenger Name Record data for the prevention, detection, investigation and prosecution of terrorist offences and serious crime (2011b).

  393. 393.

    Article 29 Data Protection Working Party Letter on EU PNR to Chairman of the LIBE Committee of the European Parliament (2015).

  394. 394.

    European Parliament. Draft recommendation on the draft Council decision on the conclusion of the Agreement between the United States of America and the European Union on the use and transfer of Passenger Name Records (PNR) to the United States Department of Homeland Security, 30 January 2012.

  395. 395.

    GAO Secure Flight Development and Testing Under Way, but Risks Should Be Managed as System Is Further Developed (2005); GAO Efforts to Strengthen International Passenger Prescreening are Under Way, but Planning and Implementation Issues Remain (2007).

  396. 396.

    FRA (2011b).

  397. 397.

    Dempsey and Flint (2004) p. 1471.

  398. 398.

    Vine (2013).

  399. 399.

    IATA. Passenger Services Conference Resolutions Manual (PSCRM). 01June 2007–31 May 2008 27th Edition.

  400. 400.

    See Hasbrouck. What’s in a Passenger Name Record (PNR)? 2009. http://hasbrouck.org/articles/PNR.html

  401. 401.

    British Airways. Privacy Policy. http://www.britishairways.com/en-no/information/legal/privacy-policy

  402. 402.

    ICAO PNR Guidelines (2010) §2.1.6.

  403. 403.

    British Airways. Privacy Policy. http://www.britishairways.com/en-no/information/legal/privacy-policy

  404. 404.

    Ibid.

  405. 405.

    United Air Lines, Inc. Contract of Carriage (revised 31 December 2015), https://www.united.com/web/format/pdf/Contract_of_Carriage.pdf

  406. 406.

    §2.1 of Communication from the Commission On the global approach to transfers of Passenger Name Record (PNR) data to third countries. Brussels, 21 September 2010, COM(2010) 492 final.

  407. 407.

    Vine (2013).

  408. 408.

    Fessard. France jumps EU law and follows UK with mass surveillance of air travelers. 26 December 2013. http://www.mediapart.fr/en/journal/international/261213/france-jumps-eu-law-and-follows-uk-mass-surveillance-air-travellers

  409. 409.

    British Airways. Government access to British Airways booking records. Answer Id 1621. Updated 15/07/2015. http://www.britishairways.com/travel/gsanswer/public/no_no (date accessed: 20 September 2015).

  410. 410.

    Amicelli (2012b) p. 274.

  411. 411.

    TSA. Secure Flight Program. http://www.tsa.gov/stakeholders/secure-flight-program (date accessed: 7 August 2015).

  412. 412.

    U.S. Department of Justice, Office of the Inspector General Audit Division. The Federal Bureau of Investigation’s Terrorist Watchlist Nomination Process. http://www.usdoj.gov/oig/reports/FBI/a0925/final.pdf, 2009.

  413. 413.

    Ackerman. No-fly list used by FBI to coerce Muslims into informing, lawsuit claims. The Guardian. 23 April 2014. http://www.theguardian.com/world/2014/apr/23/no-fly-list-fbi-coerce-muslims/

  414. 414.

    Ibid.

  415. 415.

    Ibid.

  416. 416.

    Choudhury. Ninth Circuit Gives ACLU’s No Fly List Clients Their Day in Court. ACLU. 30 July 2012. http://www.aclu.org/blog/national-security-technology-and-liberty/ninth-circuit-gives-aclus-no-fly-list-clients-their

  417. 417.

    Ackerman (2014).

  418. 418.

    Ibid.

  419. 419.

    Lyon. Surveillance, security and social sorting emerging research priorities. In: International criminal justice review. Vol. 17 (2007) p. 162.

  420. 420.

    Article 29 Data Protection Working Party (2004).

  421. 421.

    Art.27 of Directive 2004/38/EC of 29 April 2004.

  422. 422.

    European Parliamentary Research Service (2015).

  423. 423.

    Couessin. Passenger name records and advanced passenger information: data privacy concerns identified and resolved. In: Aviation Security International. Vol. 21 (2015) p. 39.

  424. 424.

    Ibid.

  425. 425.

    The Identity Project. Secure flight. http://papersplease.org/secureflight.html

  426. 426.

    Tirosh and Birnhack (2013) p. 1299.

  427. 427.

    Schermer. The limits of privacy in automated profiling and data mining. In: Computer Law & Security Review. Vol. 27 (2011). p. 47.

  428. 428.

    Amicelle Surveillance and discrimination In: Surveillance, fighting crime and violence (2012) p. 279.

  429. 429.

    Ibid. p. 275 citing Lyon (2007) and other authors.

  430. 430.

    Leese (2013) p. 487.

  431. 431.

    Applicable if not 100% passengers are scanned. For instance, while in Russia all passengers must go through the scans, in the UK scanners are applied only to selected passengers.

  432. 432.

    European Committee on Legal Co-operation (2003) and Article 29 Data Protection Working Party (2004).

  433. 433.

    E.g. U.S. Department of Justice. Guidance for federal law enforcement agencies regarding the use of race, ethnicity, gender, national origin, religion, sexual orientation, or gender identity. December 2014.

  434. 434.

    Quinlan (2015) p. 36.

  435. 435.

    Ibid. p. 37.

  436. 436.

    Open Society Institute. Ethnic Profiling in the European Union: Pervasive, Ineffective, and Discriminatory (2009). https://www.opensocietyfoundations.org/sites/default/files/profiling_20090526.pdf, p. 7.

  437. 437.

    White. Airport security checks: More offensive to some than to others. The Guardian. 24 May 2011. http://www.theguardian.com/politics/blog/2011/may/24/airport-security-checks-terrorism-act

  438. 438.

    Littlejohn. How to avoid airport security: Wear a burka. Daily Mail, 10 May 2012. http://www.dailymail.co.uk/debate/article-2142619/How-avoid-airport-security-Wear-burka.html#ixzz2idYLMjYs

  439. 439.

    Bazian (2014).

  440. 440.

    Carli (2008) p. 12.

  441. 441.

    Cohen. Intercultural differences: the challenge for the screeners. In: Aviation Security International. Vol. 18 (2012) p. 14.

  442. 442.

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    Cohen (2012) p. 14.

  444. 444.

    Ibid.

  445. 445.

    Schermer (2011) p. 47.

  446. 446.

    Palmer (2011).

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    Schermer (2011) p. 47.

  448. 448.

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  449. 449.

    Vermeulen and Bellanova (2013) p. 305.

  450. 450.

    Gilbert (2007) p. 33.

  451. 451.

    Vermeulen and Bellanova (2013) p. 306.

  452. 452.

    Ibid.

  453. 453.

    Ibid. p. 310.

  454. 454.

    Ibid. p. 311.

  455. 455.

    See Chap. 7.

  456. 456.

    FRA (2011b).

  457. 457.

    European Data Protection Supervisor (2011b).

  458. 458.

    FRA (2011b).

  459. 459.

    Schermer (2011) p. 51.

  460. 460.

    Ibid. p. 49.

  461. 461.

    Naudin (2014) p. 44.

  462. 462.

    Leese (2014) p. 494.

  463. 463.

    Flynn. Intelligence: a pre-requisite for risk-based security screening. In: Aviation Security International. Vol. 19 (2012). p. 19.

  464. 464.

    See Fatokun. Airport security: current practice and perspectives for 2013. In: Journal of Air Transport Studies. Vol. 4 (2013). p. 36 referring to IATA’s Checkpoint of the future: Executive Summary (2013).

  465. 465.

    ACLU. Airport security: increased safety need not come at the expense of civil liberties. https://www.aclu.org/airport-securityincreased-safety-need-not-come-expense-civil-liberties

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    Gilbert (2007) p. 42.

  467. 467.

    Salter (2008) p. 256.

  468. 468.

    Preto. Aviation security – priorities of the Commission (2009) p. 2.

  469. 469.

    ACI Policy and Recommended Practices Handbook. Seventh edition. November 2009.

  470. 470.

    IATA. Remarks of Tony Tyler at the IATA Ops Conference in Vienna, 15 April 2013. http://www.iata.org/pressroom/speeches/Pages/2013-04-15-01.aspx

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    See, e.g. Recommendations of the 37th ICAO General Assembly (October 2010).

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    Brooks (2015) p. 31.

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    Couessin (2015) p. 37.

  474. 474.

    9/11 Commission. The 9/11 Commission Report (2004) p. 339.

  475. 475.

    Price (2013) p. 36.

  476. 476.

    Bjørnskau et al. (2007) p. iii.

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    Raffel (2007) p. 6.

  478. 478.

    Poole (2008) p. 23.

  479. 479.

    Forest (2007) p. 12.

  480. 480.

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    IATA Recommended Practice (RP) 1701a.

  482. 482.

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  486. 486.

    Bradley (2015).

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    Ibid.

  488. 488.

    DHS, Aviation Security. http://www.dhs.gov/aviation-security

  489. 489.

    Global Entry is a U.S. Customs and Border Protection program that allows expedited clearance for pre-approved, low-risk travellers upon arrival in the USA. http://www.cbp.gov/travel/trusted-traveler-programs/global-entry

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    See also IATA’s project SmartS which is being developed in cooperation with governments.

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    Leese (2013) p. 486.

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Enerstvedt, O.M. (2017). Aviation Security Technologies. In: Aviation Security, Privacy, Data Protection and Other Human Rights: Technologies and Legal Principles. Law, Governance and Technology Series(), vol 37. Springer, Cham. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-319-58139-2_6

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