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Non-discrimination and Protection of Fundamental Rights in Cybercrime and Cyberterrorism Research

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Combatting Cybercrime and Cyberterrorism

Abstract

This chapter presents and explores the legal issues surrounding the fundamental human rights of victims and in relation to non-discrimination, in the context of cybercrime (CC) and cyberterrorism (CT) research. In relation to non-discrimination, the focus is on social inclusion, minimising disparities and avoiding marginalisation of groups, particularly when presenting results of studies involving identified sections of society. The importance of victims’ rights in relation to CC/CT research is then explored and the most relevant aspects as a possible limiting factor in this area are outlined. The infinite value of awareness of these considerations as well as independence and neutrality of research is emphasised.

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Notes

  1. 1.

    This definition of victim of crime can be found in article 1 of the “Declaration of basic principles of justice for victims of crime and abuse of power”, approved by resolution number 40/34 of 29 September 1995 by the General Assembly of the United Nations (https://www.unodc.org/pdf/compendium/compendium_2006_part_03_02.pdf).

  2. 2.

    Speech made on 18 May 2011 in Brussels by the vice president Viviane Reading, Vice-President and Commissioner responsible for Justice during the presentation of the measures known as the “Victims Package” to protect the victims of crime (http://europa.eu/rapid/press-release_IP-11-585_en.htm).

  3. 3.

    EUROPEAN COMMISSION (2004), EQUAL Guide on gender mainstreaming. Employment & European Social Fund. Available online at: http://ec.europa.eu/employment_social/equal_consolidated/data/document/gendermain_en.pdf.

  4. 4.

    The European Institute for Gender Equality at: http://eige.europa.eu/gender-mainstreaming/concepts-and-definitions accessed August 2015.

  5. 5.

    COUNCIL OF EUROPE (2004), Council Directive 2004/83/EC of 29 April 2004 on minimum standards for the qualification and status of third country nationals or stateless persons as refugees or as persons who otherwise need international protection and the content of the protection granted. Available online at: http://eur-lex.europa.eu/LexUriServ/LexUriServ.do?uri=CELEX:32004L0083:en:HTML.

  6. 6.

    EUROPEAN NETWORK OF LEGAL EXPERTS IN THE NON-DISCRIMINATION FIELD (HUMAN EUROPEAN CONSULTANCY, MIGRATION POLICY GROUP (MPG) 2008), Explanatory notes of the amended Equal Treatment Act, Country Report Austria. Available online at: http://www.non-discrimination.net/content/media/2008-AT-Country%20Report%20final.pdf.

  7. 7.

    EUROPEAN NETWORK AGAINST RACISM (2007), Religious Discrimination and Legal Protection in the European Union. Fact Sheet N\({}^\circ \)34 Available online at: http://www.cie.ugent.be/documenten/ENAR_religiousdiscrimination_oct2007.pdf.

  8. 8.

    OXFORD ENGLISH DICTIONARY. Available online at: http://www.oxforddictionaries.com/definition/english/minority.

  9. 9.

    COUNCIL OF EUROPE (2008), Report of High-level task force on social cohesion towards an active, fair and socially cohesive Europe. Available online at: http://www.coe.int/t/dg3/.

  10. 10.

    EUROPOEAN POLICE OFFICE (EUROPOL) (2014), The Internet Organised Crime Threat Assessment (iOCTA). Available online at: https://www.europol.europa.eu/sites/default/files/publications/europol_iocta_web.pdf.

  11. 11.

    Universal Declaration of Human Rights (adopted 10 December 1948 UNGA Res 217 A(III) (UDHR) art 5. Available online at: http://www.un.org/en/documents/udhr/.

  12. 12.

    Ibid Art. 2.

  13. 13.

    Ibid Art. 18.

  14. 14.

    Convention for the Protection of Human Rights and Fundamental Freedoms (European Convention on Human Rights, as amended) (ECHR) art 3, 1950.

  15. 15.

    Protocol No. 7 to the 1950 European Convention for the Protection of Human Rights and Fundamental Freedoms, (ETS No. 117), entered into force Nov. 1, 1988.

  16. 16.

    European Union, Charter of Fundamental Rights of the European Union, 26 October 2012, 2012/C 326/02. The Treaty of Lisbon 2009 conferred on the Charter the same legal status as the European Treaties.

  17. 17.

    For examples see: UN OFFICE FOR THE COORDINATION OF HUMANITARIAN AFFAIRS, IRIN humanitarian news and analysis. Available online at: http://www.irinnews.org/indepthmain.aspx?InDepthId=20&ReportId=62846; EUROPEAN UNION AGENCY FOR FUNDAMENTAL RIGHTS AND THE EUROPEAN COURT OF HUMAN RIGHTS, Handbook on European non-discrimination law. Available online at: http://fra.europa.eu/sites/default/files/fra_uploads/1510-FRA-CASE-LAW-HANDBOOK_EN.pdf; and UNITED NATIONS INTERREGIONAL CRIME AND JUSTICE RESEARCH INSTITUTE (UNICRI) - LIGHT ON Training Manual: Investigating and Reporting Online Hate Speech, p. 50.

  18. 18.

    COUNCIL OF EUROPE (1997), Final Declaration of the Second summit of heads of State and Government. Available online at: https://wcd.coe.int/ViewDoc.jsp?id=593437.

  19. 19.

    COUNCIL OF EUROPE (2003), Additional Protocol to the Convention on Cybercrime, concerning the criminalisation of acts of a racist and xenophobic nature committed through computer systems. Available online at: http://conventions.coe.int/Treaty/en/Treaties/Html/189.htm.

  20. 20.

    http://www.coe.int/t/dghl/standardsetting/victims/Rec(1983)7.pdf.

  21. 21.

    http://www.coe.int/t/dghl/standardsetting/victims/recR_85_11e.pdf.

  22. 22.

    https://wcd.coe.int/com.instranet.InstraServlet?command=com.instranet.CmdBlo bGet&InstranetImage=608023&SecMode=1&DocId=694280&Usage=2.

  23. 23.

    https://wcd.coe.int/ViewDoc.jsp?id=70063.

  24. 24.

    http://apav.pt/apav_v2/images/pdf/pk06032_031.pdf.

  25. 25.

    http://www.un.org/documents/ga/res/40/a40r034.htm.

  26. 26.

    http://db.eurocrim.org/db/en/doc/346.pdf.

  27. 27.

    http://db.eurocrim.org/db/en/doc/330.pdf.

  28. 28.

    http://eur-lex.europa.eu/legal-content/EN/TXT/PDF/?uri=CELEX:32011L0036& from=EN.

  29. 29.

    http://ec.europa.eu/justice/criminal/files/directive_2011_99_on_epo_en.pdf.

  30. 30.

    http://eur-lex.europa.eu/legal-content/EN/TXT/PDF/?uri=CELEX:32012L0029& from=en.

  31. 31.

    http://victimsupporteurope.eu/activeapp/wp-content/uploads/2012/09/Resolution-of-the-Council-on-a-roadmap-for-strengthening-the-rights-and-protection-of-victims-in-particular-in-criminal-proceedings1.pdf.

  32. 32.

    Information about the case is based on the case description on http://genetics.ncai.org/case-study/havasupai-Tribe.cfm.

  33. 33.

    EUROPEAN COMMISSION (2013), EU Cybersecurity plan to protect open internet and online freedom and opportunity (Press Release). Available online at: http://europa.eu/rapid/press-release_IP-13-94_en.htm.

  34. 34.

    EUROPEAN COMMISSION AND THE HIGH REPRESENTATIVE OF THE UNION FOR FOREIGN AFFAIRS AND SECURITY POLICY (2013), Cybersecurity Strategy of the European Union: An Open, Safe and Secure Cyberspace. Available online at: http://eeas.europa.eu/policies/eu-cyber-security/cybsec_comm_en.pdf.

  35. 35.

    EUROPEAN COMMISSION (2013), Proposal for a directive concerning measures to ensure a high common level of network and information security across the Union. Available online at: http://ec.europa.eu/information_society/newsroom/cf/dae/document.cfm?doc_id=1666.

  36. 36.

    Resolution n\({}^\circ \) 40/34 of 29 September 1985 at the General Assembly of the United Nations (https://www.unodc.org/pdf/compendium/compendium_2006_part_03_02.pdf).

  37. 37.

    ENCYCLOPAEDIA BRITANNICA. Available online at: http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/2591/academic-freedom.

  38. 38.

    Articles 92 and 103 of the Criminal Procedure Code.

  39. 39.

    Article 70, no. 2 of the Criminal Code.

  40. 40.

    Council of Europe, Convention on Cybercrime, 23 November 2001, available at: http://www.refworld.org/docid/47fdfb202.html.

  41. 41.

    Milan Law Court, with a single judge, Criminal Section VII, Decision n\({}^\circ \) 10397/2012 of 16 October 12.

  42. 42.

    See the decision handed down by the Judge for Preliminary Investigations at Milan Law-Court, Dr. Luerti (http://robertoflor.blogspot.it/2009/06/phishing-misto-e-attivita-abusiva-di.html).

  43. 43.

    See for example, the records of the Coordination of Democratic Jurists meeting at Turin on 9 June 2001 at the “The victim of Crime, this unknown entity” meeting (http://files.giuristidemocratici.it/giuristi/Zfiles/ggdd_20030723122357.pdf).

  44. 44.

    Chamber of Deputies n\({}^\circ \) 1242, Constitutional Bill put forward by the deputy, Boato, Amendment to article 111 of the constitution regarding the guaranteeing the rights of victims of crime. Presented on 29 June 2006. (http://www.camera.it/_dati/leg15/lavori/schedela/apriTelecomando.asp?codice=15PDL0008750).

  45. 45.

    Of 15 June 2000.

  46. 46.

    Article 53-1 and Article 75.

  47. 47.

    More information about help and support services to victims in France are avaible at: https://e-justice.europa.eu/content_rights_of_victims_of_crime_in_criminal_proce edings-171-FR-maximizeMS-en.do?clang=en&idSubpage=4&member=1.

  48. 48.

    Loi du 29 juillet 1881 sur la liberté de la presse, JORF du 30 juillet 1881 p. 420.

  49. 49.

    Constitution du 4 octobre 1958, JORF n\({}^\circ \) 0238 du 5 octobre 1958, p. 9151 Available online at: http://www.conseil-constitutionnel.fr/conseil-constitutionnel/english/constitution/constitution-of-4-october-1958.25742.html.

  50. 50.

    Article 1.

  51. 51.

    Loi n\({}^\circ \) 72-546 du 1 juillet 1972 relative à la lutte contre le racisme, JORF n\({}^\circ \)0154 du 2 juillet 1972 p. 6803.

  52. 52.

    Loi n\({}^\circ \) 78-17 du 6 janvier 1978 relative à l’informatique, aux fichiers et aux libertés, JORF du 7 janvier 1978), p. 227–231.

  53. 53.

    Loi n\({}^\circ \) 78-17 du 6 janvier 1978 relative à l’informatique, aux fichiers et aux libertés, JORF du 7 janvier 1978, p. 227–231.

  54. 54.

    Loi n\({}^\circ \) 88-19 du 5 janvier 1988 relative à la fraude informatique, JORF du 6 janvier 1988 p. 231.

  55. 55.

    Loi n\({}^\circ \) 2014-873 du 4 août 2014 pour l’égalité réelle entre les femmes et les hommes, JORF n\({}^\circ \)0179 du 5 août 2014 p. 12949.

  56. 56.

    Anteproyecto de la Ley de Enjuiciamiento Criminal de 27 de julio 2011.

  57. 57.

    Compare the news online at: http://elpais.com/elpais/2014/05/09/inenglish/1399628265_760093.html.

  58. 58.

    Further information avaible online on the site of Europol at: https://www.europol.europa.eu/content/police-dismantle-prolific-ransomware-cybercriminal-network.

  59. 59.

    For a discussion of stigmatisation, see for example Gross, S. R., & Livingston, D. (2002). Racial profiling under attack. Columbia Law Review, 1413-1438; van der Leun, J. P., & van der Woude, M. A. (2011). Ethnic profiling in the Netherlands?A reflection on expanding preventive powers, ethnic profiling and a changing social and political context. Policing and society, 21(4).

Acknowledgement

The research leading to these results has received funding from the European Union Seventh Framework Programme (FP7-SEC-2013) as the COURAGE project under grant agreement no 607949.

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Authors and Affiliations

  1. UNICRI, United Nations Interregional Crime and Justice Research Institute, Turin, Italy

    Francesca Bosco, Elise Vermeersch & Vittoria Luda

  2. Cybercrime Research Institute, Cologne, Germany

    Giuseppe Vaciago & Ulrich Gasper

  3. Office of the Police and Crime Commissioner for West Yorkshire, Wakefield, UK

    Alison Lyle

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  1. Francesca Bosco
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  2. Elise Vermeersch
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  4. Giuseppe Vaciago
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Correspondence to Alison Lyle .

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Editors and Affiliations

  1. CENTRIC, Sheffield Hallam University, Sheffield, South Yorkshire, United Kingdom

    Babak Akhgar

  2. CENTRIC, Sheffield Hallam University, Sheffield, United Kingdom

    Ben Brewster

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Bosco, F., Vermeersch, E., Luda, V., Vaciago, G., Gasper, U., Lyle, A. (2016). Non-discrimination and Protection of Fundamental Rights in Cybercrime and Cyberterrorism Research. In: Akhgar, B., Brewster, B. (eds) Combatting Cybercrime and Cyberterrorism. Advanced Sciences and Technologies for Security Applications. Springer, Cham. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-319-38930-1_6

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