Abstract
Opportunistic pathogens (OP) pose a serious threat to human health, and the frequency of opportunistic infections (OI) is increasing worldwide. Rising rates of human OI are attributed to the emergence of antimicrobial-resistant or more virulent microbes, as well as advances in medical technology that have led to the extended lifespan of individuals suffering from chronic diseases and living in an immunocompromised state. This chapter highlights the populations at greatest risk for OI, as well as the major bacterial and fungal OPs that threaten human health and burden modern healthcare systems. We emphasize here characteristics of infection, epidemiology, microbial pathogenesis, and antimicrobial resistance.
This is a preview of subscription content, log in via an institution.
Buying options
Tax calculation will be finalised at checkout
Purchases are for personal use only
Learn about institutional subscriptionsReferences
Agrawal A, Murphy TF (2011) Haemophilus influenzae infections in the H. influenzae type b conjugate vaccine era. J Clin Microbiol 49(11):3728–3732. doi:10.1128/JCM.05476-11
Allerberger F, Wagner M (2010) Listeriosis: a resurgent foodborne infection. Clin Microbiol Infect 16(1):16–23. doi:10.1111/j.1469-0691.2009.03109.x
Almeida RS, Wilson D, Hube B (2009) Candida albicans iron acquisition within the host. FEMS Yeast Res 9(7):1000–1012. doi:10.1111/j.1567-1364.2009.00570.x
Amitani R, Murayama T, Nawada R, Lee WJ, Niimi A, Suzuki K, Tanaka E, Kuze F (1995a) Aspergillus culture filtrates and sputum sols from patients with pulmonary aspergillosis cause damage to human respiratory ciliated epithelium in vitro. Eur Respir J 8(10):1681–1687
Amitani R, Taylor G, Elezis EN, Llewellyn-Jones C, Mitchell J, Kuze F, Cole PJ, Wilson R (1995b) Purification and characterization of factors produced by Aspergillus fumigatus which affect human ciliated respiratory epithelium. Infect Immun 63(9):3266–3271
Anaissie EJ, Penzak SR, Dignani MC (2002) The hospital water supply as a source of nosocomial infections: a plea for action. Arch Intern Med 162(13):1483–1492
Andreani G, Lodge R, Richard D, Tremblay MJ (2012) Mechanisms of interaction between protozoan parasites and HIV. Curr Opin HIV AIDS 7(3):276–282. doi:10.1097/COH.0b013e32835211e9
Angus AA, Lee AA, Augustin DK, Lee EJ, Evans DJ, Fleiszig SM (2008) Pseudomonas aeruginosa induces membrane blebs in epithelial cells, which are utilized as a niche for intracellular replication and motility. Infect Immun 76(5):1992–2001. doi:10.1128/IAI.01221-07
Angus AA, Evans DJ, Barbieri JT, Fleiszig SM (2010) The ADP-ribosylation domain of Pseudomonas aeruginosa ExoS is required for membrane bleb niche formation and bacterial survival within epithelial cells. Infect Immun 78(11):4500–4510. doi:10.1128/IAI.00417-10
Aniansson G, Alm B, Andersson B, Larsson P, Nylen O, Peterson H, Rigner P, Svanborg M, Svanborg C (1992) Nasopharyngeal colonization during the first year of life. J Infect Dis 165(Suppl 1):S38–S42
Annaix V, Bouchara JP, Larcher G, Chabasse D, Tronchin G (1992) Specific binding of human fibrinogen fragment D to Aspergillus fumigatus conidia. Infect Immun 60(5):1747–1755
Anstey NM, Currie BJ, Hassell M, Palmer D, Dwyer B, Seifert H (2002) Community-acquired bacteremic Acinetobacter pneumonia in tropical Australia is caused by diverse strains of Acinetobacter baumannii, with carriage in the throat in at-risk groups. J Clin Microbiol 40(2):685–686
Assaad U, El-Masri I, Porhomayon J, El-Solh AA (2012) Pneumonia immunization in older adults: review of vaccine effectiveness and strategies. Clin Interv Aging 7:453–461. doi:10.2147/CIA.S29675
Avadhanula V, Rodriguez CA, Ulett GC, Bakaletz LO, Adderson EE (2006) Nontypeable Haemophilus influenzae adheres to intercellular adhesion molecule 1 (ICAM-1) on respiratory epithelial cells and upregulates ICAM-1 expression. Infect Immun 74(2):830–838. doi:10.1128/IAI.74.2.830-838.2006
Baddley JW, Marr KA, Andes DR, Walsh TJ, Kauffman CA, Kontoyiannis DP, Ito JI, Balajee SA, Pappas PG, Moser SA (2009) Patterns of susceptibility of Aspergillus isolates recovered from patients enrolled in the Transplant-Associated Infection Surveillance Network. J Clin Microbiol 47(10):3271–3275. doi:10.1128/JCM.00854-09
Ballok AE, O’Toole GA (2013) Pouring salt on a wound: Pseudomonas aeruginosa virulence factors alter Na+ and Cl- flux in the lung. J Bacteriol 195(18):4013–4019. doi:10.1128/JB.00339-13
Barbieri JT, Sun J (2004) Pseudomonas aeruginosa ExoS and ExoT. Rev Physiol Biochem Pharmacol 152:79–92. doi:10.1007/s10254-004-0031-7
Barocchi MA, Ries J, Zogaj X, Hemsley C, Albiger B, Kanth A, Dahlberg S, Fernebro J, Moschioni M, Masignani V, Hultenby K, Taddei AR, Beiter K, Wartha F, von Euler A, Covacci A, Holden DW, Normark S, Rappuoli R, Henriques-Normark B (2006) A pneumococcal pilus influences virulence and host inflammatory responses. Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A 103(8):2857–2862. doi:10.1073/pnas.0511017103
Barre-Sinoussi F, Chermann JC, Rey F, Nugeyre MT, Chamaret S, Gruest J, Dauguet C, Axler-Blin C, Vezinet-Brun F, Rouzioux C, Rozenbaum W, Montagnier L (1983) Isolation of a T-lymphotropic retrovirus from a patient at risk for acquired immune deficiency syndrome (AIDS). Science 220(4599):868–871
Bartlett JG, Chang TW, Gurwith M, Gorbach SL, Onderdonk AB (1978) Antibiotic-associated pseudomembranous colitis due to toxin-producing clostridia. N Engl J Med 298(10):531–534. doi:10.1056/NEJM197803092981003
Behnsen J, Hartmann A, Schmaler J, Gehrke A, Brakhage AA, Zipfel PF (2008) The opportunistic human pathogenic fungus Aspergillus fumigatus evades the host complement system. Infect Immun 76(2):820–827. doi:10.1128/IAI.01037-07
Berdiev BK, Qadri YJ, Benos DJ (2009) Assessment of the CFTR and ENaC association. Mol Biosyst 5(2):123–127. doi:10.1039/b810471a
Blankenship JR, Mitchell AP (2006) How to build a biofilm: a fungal perspective. Curr Opin Microbiol 9(6):588–594. doi:10.1016/j.mib.2006.10.003
Bleves S, Viarre V, Salacha R, Michel GP, Filloux A, Voulhoux R (2010) Protein secretion systems in Pseudomonas aeruginosa: a wealth of pathogenic weapons. Int J Med Microbiol 300(8):534–543. doi:10.1016/j.ijmm.2010.08.005
Blot S, Vandewoude K (2004) Early detection of systemic infections. Acta Clin Belg 59(1):20–23
Bode LG, Kluytmans JA, Wertheim HF, Bogaers D, Vandenbroucke-Grauls CM, Roosendaal R, Troelstra A, Box AT, Voss A, van der Tweel I, van Belkum A, Verbrugh HA, Vos MC (2010) Preventing surgical-site infections in nasal carriers of Staphylococcus aureus. N Engl J Med 362(1):9–17. doi:10.1056/NEJMoa0808939
Bomberger JM, Ye S, Maceachran DP, Koeppen K, Barnaby RL, O’Toole GA, Stanton BA (2011) A Pseudomonas aeruginosa toxin that hijacks the host ubiquitin proteolytic system. PLoS Pathog 7(3):e1001325. doi:10.1371/journal.ppat.1001325
Bonnet F, Lewden C, May T, Heripret L, Jougla E, Bevilacqua S, Costagliola D, Salmon D, Chene G, Morlat P, Mortalité 2000 Study Group (2005) Opportunistic infections as causes of death in HIV-infected patients in the HAART era in France. Scand J Infect Dis 37(6-7):482–487
Bortolussi R (2008) Listeriosis: a primer. CMAJ 179(8):795–797. doi:10.1503/cmaj.081377
Botterel F, Cordonnier C, Barbier V, Wingerstmann L, Liance M, Coste A, Escudier E, Bretagne S (2002) Aspergillus fumigatus causes in vitro electrophysiological and morphological modifications in human nasal epithelial cells. Histol Histopathol 17(4):1095–1101
Bouchara JP, Bouali A, Tronchin G, Robert R, Chabasse D, Senet JM (1988) Binding of fibrinogen to the pathogenic Aspergillus species. J Med Vet Mycol 26(6):327–334
Boucher HW, Corey GR (2008) Epidemiology of methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus. Clin Infect Dis 46(Suppl 5):S344–S349. doi:10.1086/533590
Boucher HW, Talbot GH, Bradley JS, Edwards JE, Gilbert D, Rice LB, Scheld M, Spellberg B, Bartlett J (2009) Bad bugs, no drugs: no ESKAPE! An update from the Infectious Diseases Society of America. Clin Infect Dis 48(1):1–12. doi:10.1086/595011
Bramono K, Yamazaki M, Tsuboi R, Ogawa H (2006) Comparison of proteinase, lipase and alpha-glucosidase activities from the clinical isolates of Candida species. Jpn J Infect Dis 59(2):73–76
Brandt ME, Pfaller MA, Hajjeh RA, Hamill RJ, Pappas PG, Reingold AL, Rimland D, Warnock DW, Cryptococcal Disease Active Surveillance Group (2001) Trends in antifungal drug susceptibility of Cryptococcus neoformans isolates in the United States: 1992 to 1994 and 1996 to 1998. Antimicrob Agents Chemother 45(11):3065–3069. doi:10.1128/AAC.45.11.3065-3069.2001
Bromley IM, Donaldson K (1996) Binding of Aspergillus fumigatus spores to lung epithelial cells and basement membrane proteins: relevance to the asthmatic lung. Thorax 51(12):1203–1209
Brooke JS (2012) Stenotrophomonas maltophilia: an emerging global opportunistic pathogen. Clin Microbiol Rev 25(1):2–41. doi:10.1128/CMR.00019-11
Brooke JS (2014) New strategies against Stenotrophomonas maltophilia: a serious worldwide intrinsically drug-resistant opportunistic pathogen. Expert Rev Anti Infect Ther 12(1):1–4. doi:10.1586/14787210.2014.864553
Brooks JT, Kaplan JE, Holmes KK, Benson C, Pau A, Masur H (2009) HIV-associated opportunistic infections—going, going, but not gone: the continued need for prevention and treatment guidelines. Clin Infect Dis 48(5):609–611. doi:10.1086/596756
Brundage RA, Smith GA, Camilli A, Theriot JA, Portnoy DA (1993) Expression and phosphorylation of the Listeria monocytogenes ActA protein in mammalian cells. Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A 90(24):11890–11894
Burke KE, Lamont JT (2013) Fecal transplantation for recurrent Clostridium difficile infection in older adults: a review. J Am Geriatr Soc 61(8):1394–1398. doi:10.1111/jgs.12378
Burkholder KM, Bhunia AK (2010) Listeria monocytogenes uses Listeria adhesion protein (LAP) to promote bacterial transepithelial translocation and induces expression of LAP receptor Hsp60. Infect Immun 78(12):5062–5073. doi:10.1128/IAI.00516-10
Butterworth MB, Zhang L, Heidrich EM, Myerburg MM, Thibodeau PH (2012) Activation of the epithelial sodium channel (ENaC) by the alkaline protease from Pseudomonas aeruginosa. J Biol Chem 287(39):32556–32565. doi:10.1074/jbc.M112.369520
Cabanes D, Sousa S, Cebria A, Lecuit M, Garcia-del Portillo F, Cossart P (2005) Gp96 is a receptor for a novel Listeria monocytogenes virulence factor, Vip, a surface protein. EMBO J 24(15):2827–2838. doi:10.1038/sj.emboj.7600750
Canvin JR, Marvin AP, Sivakumaran M, Paton JC, Boulnois GJ, Andrew PW, Mitchell TJ (1995) The role of pneumolysin and autolysin in the pathology of pneumonia and septicemia in mice infected with a type 2 pneumococcus. J Infect Dis 172(1):119–123
Carmona EM, Vassallo R, Vuk-Pavlovic Z, Standing JE, Kottom TJ, Limper AH (2006) Pneumocystis cell wall beta-glucans induce dendritic cell costimulatory molecule expression and inflammatory activation through a Fas-Fas ligand mechanism. J Immunol 177(1):459–467
Casadevall A, Pirofski LA (1999) Host-pathogen interactions: redefining the basic concepts of virulence and pathogenicity. Infect Immun 67(8):3703–3713
Cassone A, Cauda R (2012) Candida and candidiasis in HIV-infected patients: where commensalism, opportunistic behavior and frank pathogenicity lose their borders. AIDS 26(12):1457–1472. doi:10.1097/QAD.0b013e3283536ba8
Caston-Osorio JJ, Rivero A, Torre-Cisneros J (2008) Epidemiology of invasive fungal infection. Int J Antimicrob Agents 32(Suppl 2):S103–S109. doi:10.1016/S0924-8579(08)70009-8
Centers for Disease Control (1981) Pneumocystis pneumonia—Los Angeles. MMWR Morb Mortal Wkly Rep 30(21):250–252
Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (1997) Update: trends in AIDS incidence, deaths, and prevalence—United States, 1996. MMWR Morb Mortal Wkly Rep 46(8):165–173
Chaari A, Mnif B, Bahloul M, Mahjoubi F, Chtara K, Turki O, Gharbi N, Chelly H, Hammami A, Bouaziz M (2013) Acinetobacter baumannii ventilator-associated pneumonia: epidemiology, clinical characteristics, and prognosis factors. Int J Infect Dis 17(12):e1225–e1228. doi:10.1016/j.ijid.2013.07.014
Chandra J, Kuhn DM, Mukherjee PK, Hoyer LL, McCormick T, Ghannoum MA (2001) Biofilm formation by the fungal pathogen Candida albicans: development, architecture, and drug resistance. J Bacteriol 183(18):5385–5394
Charlier C, Nielsen K, Daou S, Brigitte M, Chretien F, Dromer F (2009) Evidence of a role for monocytes in dissemination and brain invasion by Cryptococcus neoformans. Infect Immun 77(1):120–127. doi:10.1128/IAI.01065-08
Charnot-Katsikas A, Dorafshar AH, Aycock JK, David MZ, Weber SG, Frank KM (2009) Two cases of necrotizing fasciitis due to Acinetobacter baumannii. J Clin Microbiol 47(1):258–263. doi:10.1128/JCM.01250-08
Chastre J, Fagon JY (2002) Ventilator-associated pneumonia. Am J Respir Crit Care Med 165(7):867–903. doi:10.1164/ajrccm.165.7.2105078
Chavant P, Gaillard-Martinie B, Hebraud M (2004) Antimicrobial effects of sanitizers against planktonic and sessile Listeria monocytogenes cells according to the growth phase. FEMS Microbiol Lett 236(2):241–248. doi:10.1016/j.femsle.2004.05.040
Cheung GY, Rigby K, Wang R, Queck SY, Braughton KR, Whitney AR, Teintze M, DeLeo FR, Otto M (2010) Staphylococcus epidermidis strategies to avoid killing by human neutrophils. PLoS Pathog 6(10):e1001133. doi:10.1371/journal.ppat.1001133
Chisti MJ, Tebruegge M, La Vincente S, Graham SM, Duke T (2009) Pneumonia in severely malnourished children in developing countries—mortality risk, aetiology and validity of WHO clinical signs: a systematic review. Trop Med Int Health 14(10):1173–1189. doi:10.1111/j.1365-3156.2009.02364.x
Choi CH, Lee JS, Lee YC, Park TI, Lee JC (2008) Acinetobacter baumannii invades epithelial cells and outer membrane protein A mediates interactions with epithelial cells. BMC Microbiol 8:216. doi:10.1186/1471-2180-8-216
Chun CD, Madhani HD (2010) Ctr2 links copper homeostasis to polysaccharide capsule formation and phagocytosis inhibition in the human fungal pathogen Cryptococcus neoformans. PLoS One 5 (9). doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0012503
Cody DT 2nd, McCaffrey TV, Roberts G, Kern EB (1997) Effects of Aspergillus fumigatus and Alternaria alternata on human ciliated epithelium in vitro. Laryngoscope 107(11 Pt 1):1511–1514
Cole JN, Barnett TC, Nizet V, Walker MJ (2011) Molecular insight into invasive group A streptococcal disease. Nat Rev Microbiol 9(10):724–736. doi:10.1038/nrmicro2648
Collini PJ, Kuijper E, Dockrell DH (2013) Clostridium difficile infection in patients with HIV/AIDS. Curr HIV/AIDS Rep 10(3):273–282. doi:10.1007/s11904-013-0162-z
Comolli JC, Waite LL, Mostov KE, Engel JN (1999) Pili binding to asialo-GM1 on epithelial cells can mediate cytotoxicity or bacterial internalization by Pseudomonas aeruginosa. Infect Immun 67(7):3207–3214
Cortes G, Borrell N, de Astorza B, Gomez C, Sauleda J, Alberti S (2002) Molecular analysis of the contribution of the capsular polysaccharide and the lipopolysaccharide O side chain to the virulence of Klebsiella pneumoniae in a murine model of pneumonia. Infect Immun 70(5):2583–2590
Cosseau C, Devine DA, Dullaghan E, Gardy JL, Chikatamarla A, Gellatly S, Yu LL, Pistolic J, Falsafi R, Tagg J, Hancock RE (2008) The commensal Streptococcus salivarius K12 downregulates the innate immune responses of human epithelial cells and promotes host-microbe homeostasis. Infect Immun 76(9):4163–4175. doi:10.1128/IAI.00188-08
Cox D, Kerrigan SW, Watson SP (2011) Platelets and the innate immune system: mechanisms of bacterial-induced platelet activation. J Thromb Haemost 9(6):1097–1107. doi:10.1111/j.1538-7836.2011.04264.x
Crump JA, Collignon PJ (2000) Intravascular catheter-associated infections. Eur J Clin Microbiol Infect Dis 19(1):1–8
Dagan R (2008) Use of pneumococcal conjugate vaccine to decrease rates of bacterial meningitis. Clin Infect Dis 46(11):1673–1676. doi:10.1086/587898
Dagan R, Klugman KP (2008) Impact of conjugate pneumococcal vaccines on antibiotic resistance. Lancet Infect Dis 8(12):785–795. doi:10.1016/S1473-3099(08)70281-0
de Bentzmann S, Roger P, Puchelle E (1996) Pseudomonas aeruginosa adherence to remodelling respiratory epithelium. Eur Respir J 9(10):2145–2150
Denning DW (1991) Epidemiology and pathogenesis of systemic fungal infections in the immunocompromised host. J Antimicrob Chemother 28(Suppl B):1–16
Denning DW (1998) Invasive aspergillosis. Clin Infect Dis 26(4):781–803, quiz 804–805
Diaz MH, Hauser AR (2010) Pseudomonas aeruginosa cytotoxin ExoU is injected into phagocytic cells during acute pneumonia. Infect Immun 78(4):1447–1456. doi:10.1128/IAI.01134-09
Diekema DJ, Pfaller MA, Schmitz FJ, Smayevsky J, Bell J, Jones RN, Beach M, Group SP (2001) Survey of infections due to Staphylococcus species: frequency of occurrence and antimicrobial susceptibility of isolates collected in the United States, Canada, Latin America, Europe, and the Western Pacific region for the SENTRY Antimicrobial Surveillance Program, 1997-1999. Clin Infect Dis 32(Suppl 2):S114–S132. doi:10.1086/320184
Dijkshoorn L, Nemec A, Seifert H (2007) An increasing threat in hospitals: multidrug-resistant Acinetobacter baumannii. Nat Rev Microbiol 5(12):939–951. doi:10.1038/nrmicro1789
Donlan RM (2002) Biofilms: microbial life on surfaces. Emerg Infect Dis 8(9):881–890. doi:10.3201/eid0809.020063
Donlan RM, Costerton JW (2002) Biofilms: survival mechanisms of clinically relevant microorganisms. Clin Microbiol Rev 15(2):167–193
Dramsi S, Biswas I, Maguin E, Braun L, Mastroeni P, Cossart P (1995) Entry of Listeria monocytogenes into hepatocytes requires expression of inIB, a surface protein of the internalin multigene family. Mol Microbiol 16(2):251–261
Drevets DA, Jelinek TA, Freitag NE (2001) Listeria monocytogenes-infected phagocytes can initiate central nervous system infection in mice. Infect Immun 69(3):1344–1350. doi:10.1128/IAI.69.3.1344-1350.2001
Driscoll JA, Brody SL, Kollef MH (2007) The epidemiology, pathogenesis and treatment of Pseudomonas aeruginosa infections. Drugs 67(3):351–368
Earhart MM (2008) The identification and treatment of toxic megacolon secondary to pseudomembranous colitis. Dimens Crit Care Nurs 27(6):249–254. doi:10.1097/01.DCC.0000338869.70035.2b
Edson RS, Osmon DR, Berry DJ (2002) Septic arthritis due to Streptococcus sanguis. Mayo Clin Proc 77(7):709–710. doi:10.4065/77.7.709
Eiseman B, Silen W, Bascom GS, Kauvar AJ (1958) Fecal enema as an adjunct in the treatment of pseudomembranous enterocolitis. Surgery 44(5):854–859
Fagarasan S, Honjo T (2004) Regulation of IgA synthesis at mucosal surfaces. Curr Opin Immunol 16(3):277–283. doi:10.1016/j.coi.2004.03.005
Falagas ME, Kastoris AC, Vouloumanou EK, Dimopoulos G (2009) Community-acquired Stenotrophomonas maltophilia infections: a systematic review. Eur J Clin Microbiol Infect Dis 28(7):719–730. doi:10.1007/s10096-009-0709-5
Falkow S (1997) What is a pathogen? ASM News 63:359–365
Fan J, Zhang Y, Chuang-Smith ON, Frank KL, Guenther BD, Kern M, Schlievert PM, Herzberg MC (2012) Ecto-5′-nucleotidase: a candidate virulence factor in Streptococcus sanguinis experimental endocarditis. PLoS One 7(6):e38059. doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0038059
Fang CT, Chuang YP, Shun CT, Chang SC, Wang JT (2004) A novel virulence gene in Klebsiella pneumoniae strains causing primary liver abscess and septic metastatic complications. J Exp Med 199(5):697–705. doi:10.1084/jem.20030857
Farber JM, Peterkin PI (1991) Listeria monocytogenes, a food-borne pathogen. Microbiol Rev 55(3):476–511
Filloux A (2011) Protein secretion systems in Pseudomonas aeruginosa: an essay on diversity, evolution, and function. Front Microbiol 2:155. doi:10.3389/fmicb.2011.00155
Fink DL, Green BA, St Geme JW 3rd (2002) The Haemophilus influenzae Hap autotransporter binds to fibronectin, laminin, and collagen IV. Infect Immun 70(9):4902–4907
Fink DL, Buscher AZ, Green B, Fernsten P, St Geme JW 3rd (2003) The Haemophilus influenzae Hap autotransporter mediates microcolony formation and adherence to epithelial cells and extracellular matrix via binding regions in the C-terminal end of the passenger domain. Cell Microbiol 5(3):175–186
Fishman JA (2013) Overview: cytomegalovirus and the herpesviruses in transplantation. Am J Transplant 13(Suppl 3):1–8. doi:10.1111/ajt.12002, quiz 8
Fishman JA (2014) From the classic concepts to modern practice. Clin Microbiol Infect. doi:10.1111/1469-0691.12593
Folsom JP, Frank JF (2006) Chlorine resistance of Listeria monocytogenes biofilms and relationship to subtype, cell density, and planktonic cell chlorine resistance. J Food Prot 69(6):1292–1296
Forrest DM, Seminari E, Hogg RS, Yip B, Raboud J, Lawson L, Phillips P, Schechter MT, O’Shaughnessy MV, Montaner JS (1998) The incidence and spectrum of AIDS-defining illnesses in persons treated with antiretroviral drugs. Clin Infect Dis 27(6):1379–1385
Foster TJ (2005) Immune evasion by staphylococci. Nat Rev Microbiol 3(12):948–958
Foster TJ (2009) Colonization and infection of the human host by staphylococci: adhesion, survival and immune evasion. Vet Dermatol 20(5–6):456–470. doi:10.1111/j.1365-3164.2009.00825.x
Foster TJ, Hook M (1998) Surface protein adhesins of Staphylococcus aureus. Trends Microbiol 6(12):484–488
Fournier PE, Vallenet D, Barbe V, Audic S, Ogata H, Poirel L, Richet H, Robert C, Mangenot S, Abergel C, Nordmann P, Weissenbach J, Raoult D, Claverie JM (2006) Comparative genomics of multidrug resistance in Acinetobacter baumannii. PLoS Genet 2(1):e7. doi:10.1371/journal.pgen.0020007
Frank DN, Feazel LM, Bessesen MT, Price CS, Janoff EN, Pace NR (2010) The human nasal microbiota and Staphylococcus aureus carriage. PLoS One 5(5):e10598. doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0010598
Fraunholz M, Sinha B (2012) Intracellular Staphylococcus aureus: live-in and let die. Front Cell Infect Microbiol 2:43
Fujita J, Yamadori I, Xu G, Hojo S, Negayama K, Miyawaki H, Yamaji Y, Takahara J (1996) Clinical features of Stenotrophomonas maltophilia pneumonia in immunocompromised patients. Respir Med 90(1):35–38
Gaddy JA, Tomaras AP, Actis LA (2009) The Acinetobacter baumannii 19606 OmpA protein plays a role in biofilm formation on abiotic surfaces and in the interaction of this pathogen with eukaryotic cells. Infect Immun 77(8):3150–3160. doi:10.1128/IAI.00096-09
Ganendren R, Carter E, Sorrell T, Widmer F, Wright L (2006) Phospholipase B activity enhances adhesion of Cryptococcus neoformans to a human lung epithelial cell line. Microbes Infect 8(4):1006–1015. doi:10.1016/j.micinf.2005.10.018
Gao XW, Mubasher M, Fang CY, Reifer C, Miller LE (2010) Dose-response efficacy of a proprietary probiotic formula of Lactobacillus acidophilus CL1285 and Lactobacillus casei LBC80R for antibiotic-associated diarrhea and Clostridium difficile-associated diarrhea prophylaxis in adult patients. Am J Gastroenterol 105(7):1636–1641. doi:10.1038/ajg.2010.11
Ge X, Kitten T, Chen Z, Lee SP, Munro CL, Xu P (2008) Identification of Streptococcus sanguinis genes required for biofilm formation and examination of their role in endocarditis virulence. Infect Immun 76(6):2551–2559. doi:10.1128/IAI.00338-08
Gedde MM, Higgins DE, Tilney LG, Portnoy DA (2000) Role of listeriolysin O in cell-to-cell spread of Listeria monocytogenes. Infect Immun 68(2):999–1003
Gigliotti F, Wright TW (2012) Pneumocystis: where does it live? PLoS Pathog 8(11):e1003025. doi:10.1371/journal.ppat.1003025
Gigliotti F, Haidaris PJ, Haidaris CG, Wright TW, Van der Meid KR (1993) Further evidence of host species-specific variation in antigens of Pneumocystis carinii using the polymerase chain reaction. J Infect Dis 168(1):191–194
Gilmour MW, Graham M, Van Domselaar G, Tyler S, Kent H, Trout-Yakel KM, Larios O, Allen V, Lee B, Nadon C (2010) High-throughput genome sequencing of two Listeria monocytogenes clinical isolates during a large foodborne outbreak. BMC Genomics 11:120. doi:10.1186/1471-2164-11-120
Gomes F, Teixeira P, Cerca N, Ceri H, Oliveira R (2011) Virulence gene expression by Staphylococcus epidermidis biofilm cells exposed to antibiotics. Microb Drug Resist 17(2):191–196. doi:10.1089/mdr.2010.0149
Gonzalez-Hein G, Gonzalez-Hein J, Diaz Jarabran MC (2010) Isolation of Cryptococcus neoformans in dry droppings of captive birds in Santiago, Chile. J Avian Med Surg 24(3):227–236
Govan JR, Deretic V (1996) Microbial pathogenesis in cystic fibrosis: mucoid Pseudomonas aeruginosa and Burkholderia cepacia. Microbiol Rev 60(3):539–574
Gow NA, van de Veerdonk FL, Brown AJ, Netea MG (2012) Candida albicans morphogenesis and host defence: discriminating invasion from colonization. Nat Rev Microbiol 10(2):112–122. doi:10.1038/nrmicro2711
Griffith F (1928) The significance of pneumococcal types. J Hyg (Lond) 27(2):113–159
Gross M, Cramton SE, Gotz F, Peschel A (2001) Key role of teichoic acid net charge in Staphylococcus aureus colonization of artificial surfaces. Infect Immun 69(5):3423–3426. doi:10.1128/IAI.69.5.3423-3426.2001
Guentzel MN (1996) Escherichia, Klebsiella, Enterobacter, Serratia, Citrobacter, and Proteus. In: Baron S (ed) Medical microbiology, 4th edn. University of Texas Medical Branch at Galveston, Galveston, TX
Guerrero DM, Perez F, Conger NG, Solomkin JS, Adams MD, Rather PN, Bonomo RA (2010) Acinetobacter baumannii-associated skin and soft tissue infections: recognizing a broadening spectrum of disease. Surg Infect (Larchmt) 11(1):49–57. doi:10.1089/sur.2009.022
Gurung J, Khyriem AB, Banik A, Lyngdoh WV, Choudhury B, Bhattacharyya P (2013) Association of biofilm production with multidrug resistance among clinical isolates of Acinetobacter baumannii and Pseudomonas aeruginosa from intensive care unit. Indian J Crit Care Med 17(4):214–218. doi:10.4103/0972-5229.118416
Hallstrom T, Blom AM, Zipfel PF, Riesbeck K (2009) Nontypeable Haemophilus influenzae protein E binds vitronectin and is important for serum resistance. J Immunol 183(4):2593–2601. doi:10.4049/jimmunol.0803226
Hallstrom T, Resman F, Ristovski M, Riesbeck K (2010) Binding of complement regulators to invasive nontypeable Haemophilus influenzae isolates is not increased compared to nasopharyngeal isolates, but serum resistance is linked to disease severity. J Clin Microbiol 48(3):921–927. doi:10.1128/JCM.01654-09
Hanke ML, Kielian T (2012) Deciphering mechanisms of staphylococcal biofilm evasion of host immunity. Front Cell Infect Microbiol 2:62. doi:10.3389/fcimb.2012.00062
Hansen CR (2012) Stenotrophomonas maltophilia: to be or not to be a cystic fibrosis pathogen. Curr Opin Pulm Med 18(6):628–631. doi:10.1097/MCP.0b013e328358d4f8
Hernandez AD (1989) Cutaneous cryptococcosis. Dermatol Clin 7(2):269–274
Herold BC, Immergluck LC, Maranan MC, Lauderdale DS, Gaskin RE, Boyle-Vavra S, Leitch CD, Daum RS (1998) Community-acquired methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus in children with no identified predisposing risk. JAMA 279(8):593–598
Hersh AL, Chambers HF, Maselli JH, Gonzales R (2008) National trends in ambulatory visits and antibiotic prescribing for skin and soft-tissue infections. Arch Intern Med 168(14):1585
Hickson M (2011) Probiotics in the prevention of antibiotic-associated diarrhoea and Clostridium difficile infection. Therap Adv Gastroenterol 4(3):185–197. doi:10.1177/1756283X11399115
Hirst RA, Gosai B, Rutman A, Guerin CJ, Nicotera P, Andrew PW, O’Callaghan C (2008) Streptococcus pneumoniae deficient in pneumolysin or autolysin has reduced virulence in meningitis. J Infect Dis 197(5):744–751. doi:10.1086/527322
Hogg RS, Heath KV, Yip B, Craib KJ, O’Shaughnessy MV, Schechter MT, Montaner JS (1998) Improved survival among HIV-infected individuals following initiation of antiretroviral therapy. JAMA 279(6):450–454
Hoiby N, Bjarnsholt T, Givskov M, Molin S, Ciofu O (2010) Antibiotic resistance of bacterial biofilms. Int J Antimicrob Agents 35(4):322–332. doi:10.1016/j.ijantimicag.2009.12.011
Holland LM, Conlon B, O’Gara JP (2011) Mutation of tagO reveals an essential role for wall teichoic acids in Staphylococcus epidermidis biofilm development. Microbiology 157(Pt 2):408–418. doi:10.1099/mic.0.042234-0
Hope W, Natarajan P, Goodwin L (2013) Invasive fungal infections. Clin Med 13(5):507–510. doi:10.7861/clinmedicine.13-5-507
Howard A, O’Donoghue M, Feeney A, Sleator RD (2012) Acinetobacter baumannii: an emerging opportunistic pathogen. Virulence 3(3):243–250. doi:10.4161/viru.19700
Hritonenko V, Mun JJ, Tam C, Simon NC, Barbieri JT, Evans DJ, Fleiszig SM (2011) Adenylate cyclase activity of Pseudomonas aeruginosa ExoY can mediate bleb-niche formation in epithelial cells and contributes to virulence. Microb Pathog 51(5):305–312. doi:10.1016/j.micpath.2011.08.001
Hugh R, Ryschenkow E (1961) Pseudomonas maltophilia, an alcaligenes-like species. J Gen Microbiol 26:123–132
Hyams C, Camberlein E, Cohen JM, Bax K, Brown JS (2010) The Streptococcus pneumoniae capsule inhibits complement activity and neutrophil phagocytosis by multiple mechanisms. Infect Immun 78(2):704–715. doi:10.1128/IAI.00881-09
Jahn B, Koch A, Schmidt A, Wanner G, Gehringer H, Bhakdi S, Brakhage AA (1997) Isolation and characterization of a pigmentless-conidium mutant of Aspergillus fumigatus with altered conidial surface and reduced virulence. Infect Immun 65(12):5110–5117
Jank T, Giesemann T, Aktories K (2007) Rho-glucosylating Clostridium difficile toxins A and B: new insights into structure and function. Glycobiology 17(4):15R–22R. doi:10.1093/glycob/cwm004
Jayatilake JA, Samaranayake YH, Cheung LK, Samaranayake LP (2006) Quantitative evaluation of tissue invasion by wild type, hyphal and SAP mutants of Candida albicans, and non-albicans Candida species in reconstituted human oral epithelium. J Oral Pathol Med 35(8):484–491. doi:10.1111/j.1600-0714.2006.00435.x
Jit M (2010) The risk of sequelae due to pneumococcal meningitis in high-income countries: a systematic review and meta-analysis. J Infect 61(2):114–124. doi:10.1016/j.jinf.2010.04.008
Joshi GS, Spontak JS, Klapper DG, Richardson AR (2011) Arginine catabolic mobile element encoded speG abrogates the unique hypersensitivity of Staphylococcus aureus to exogenous polyamines. Mol Microbiol 82(1):9–20. doi:10.1111/j.1365-2958.2011.07809.x
Jung WH, Hu G, Kuo W, Kronstad JW (2009) Role of ferroxidases in iron uptake and virulence of Cryptococcus neoformans. Eukaryot Cell 8(10):1511–1520. doi:10.1128/EC.00166-09
Kaplan SL, Mason EO Jr, Wald ER, Schutze GE, Bradley JS, Tan TQ, Hoffman JA, Givner LB, Yogev R, Barson WJ (2004) Decrease of invasive pneumococcal infections in children among 8 children’s hospitals in the United States after the introduction of the 7-valent pneumococcal conjugate vaccine. Pediatrics 113(3 Pt 1):443–449
Keeney KM, Stuckey JA, O’Riordan MX (2007) LplA1-dependent utilization of host lipoyl peptides enables Listeria cytosolic growth and virulence. Mol Microbiol 66(3):758–770. doi:10.1111/j.1365-2958.2007.05956.x
Keeney K, Colosi L, Weber W, O’Riordan M (2009) Generation of branched-chain fatty acids through lipoate-dependent metabolism facilitates intracellular growth of Listeria monocytogenes. J Bacteriol 191(7):2187–2196. doi:10.1128/JB.01179-08
Keller JM, Surawicz CM (2014) Clostridium difficile infection in the elderly. Clin Geriatr Med 30(1):79–93. doi:10.1016/j.cger.2013.10.008
Kerrigan SW, Douglas I, Wray A, Heath J, Byrne MF, Fitzgerald D, Cox D (2002) A role for glycoprotein Ib in Streptococcus sanguis-induced platelet aggregation. Blood 100(2):509–516
Khoufache K, Puel O, Loiseau N, Delaforge M, Rivollet D, Coste A, Cordonnier C, Escudier E, Botterel F, Bretagne S (2007) Verruculogen associated with Aspergillus fumigatus hyphae and conidia modifies the electrophysiological properties of human nasal epithelial cells. BMC Microbiol 7:5. doi:10.1186/1471-2180-7-5
Kilian M, Mestecky J, Kulhavy R, Tomana M, Butler WT (1980) IgA1 proteases from Haemophilus influenzae, Streptococcus pneumoniae, Neisseria meningitidis, and Streptococcus sanguis: comparative immunochemical studies. J Immunol 124(6):2596–2600
Kim KS (2008) Mechanisms of microbial traversal of the blood-brain barrier. Nat Rev Microbiol 6(8):625–634. doi:10.1038/nrmicro1952
Kim H, Bhunia AK (2013) Secreted Listeria adhesion protein (Lap) influences Lap-mediated Listeria monocytogenes paracellular translocation through epithelial barrier. Gut Pathog 5(1):16. doi:10.1186/1757-4749-5-16
Kim J, Sudbery P (2011) Candida albicans, a major human fungal pathogen. J Microbiol 49(2):171–177. doi:10.1007/s12275-011-1064-7
Kim SW, Choi CH, Moon DC, Jin JS, Lee JH, Shin JH, Kim JM, Lee YC, Seol SY, Cho DT, Lee JC (2009) Serum resistance of Acinetobacter baumannii through the binding of factor H to outer membrane proteins. FEMS Microbiol Lett 301(2):224–231. doi:10.1111/j.1574-6968.2009.01820.x
Kitchel B, Rasheed JK, Patel JB, Srinivasan A, Navon-Venezia S, Carmeli Y, Brolund A, Giske CG (2009) Molecular epidemiology of KPC-producing Klebsiella pneumoniae isolates in the United States: clonal expansion of multilocus sequence type 258. Antimicrob Agents Chemother 53(8):3365–3370. doi:10.1128/AAC.00126-09
Klevens RM, Morrison MA, Nadle J, Petit S, Gershman K, Ray S, Harrison LH, Lynfield R, Dumyati G, Townes JM (2007) Invasive methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus infections in the United States. JAMA 298(15):1763–1771
Kobayashi SD, Malachowa N, Whitney AR, Braughton KR, Gardner DJ, Long D, Bubeck Wardenburg J, Schneewind O, Otto M, Deleo FR (2011) Comparative analysis of USA300 virulence determinants in a rabbit model of skin and soft tissue infection. J Infect Dis 204(6):937–941. doi:10.1093/infdis/jir441
Koenigsknecht MJ, Young VB (2013) Faecal microbiota transplantation for the treatment of recurrent Clostridium difficile infection: current promise and future needs. Curr Opin Gastroenterol 29(6):628–632. doi:10.1097/MOG.0b013e328365d326
Kogan TV, Jadoun J, Mittelman L, Hirschberg K, Osherov N (2004) Involvement of secreted Aspergillus fumigatus proteases in disruption of the actin fiber cytoskeleton and loss of focal adhesion sites in infected A549 lung pneumocytes. J Infect Dis 189(11):1965–1973. doi:10.1086/420850
Kollef MH, Shorr A, Tabak YP, Gupta V, Liu LZ, Johannes RS (2005) Epidemiology and outcomes of health-care-associated pneumonia: results from a large US database of culture-positive pneumonia. Chest 128(6):3854–3862. doi:10.1378/chest.128.6.3854
Kontoyiannis DP, Marr KA, Park BJ, Alexander BD, Anaissie EJ, Walsh TJ, Ito J, Andes DR, Baddley JW, Brown JM, Brumble LM, Freifeld AG, Hadley S, Herwaldt LA, Kauffman CA, Knapp K, Lyon GM, Morrison VA, Papanicolaou G, Patterson TF, Perl TM, Schuster MG, Walker R, Wannemuehler KA, Wingard JR, Chiller TM, Pappas PG (2010) Prospective surveillance for invasive fungal infections in hematopoietic stem cell transplant recipients, 2001-2006: overview of the Transplant-Associated Infection Surveillance Network (TRANSNET) Database. Clin Infect Dis 50(8):1091–1100. doi:10.1086/651263
Korzeniewski K, Bochniak A (2011) Medical support of military operations in Iraq and Afghanistan. Int Marit Health 62(1):71–76
Koss K, Clark MA, Sanders DS, Morton D, Keighley MR, Goh J (2006) The outcome of surgery in fulminant Clostridium difficile colitis. Colorectal Dis 8(2):149–154. doi:10.1111/j.1463-1318.2005.00876.x
Kottom TJ, Kennedy CC, Limper AH (2008) Pneumocystis PCINT1, a molecule with integrin-like features that mediates organism adhesion to fibronectin. Mol Microbiol 67(4):747–761. doi:10.1111/j.1365-2958.2007.06093.x
Kreisel KM, Stine OC, Johnson JK, Perencevich EN, Shardell MD, Lesse AJ, Gordin FM, Climo MW, Roghmann MC (2011) USA300 methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus bacteremia and the risk of severe sepsis: is USA300 methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus associated with more severe infections? Diagn Microbiol Infect Dis 70(3):285–290. doi:10.1016/j.diagmicrobio.2011.03.010
Laksanalamai P, Joseph LA, Silk BJ, Burall LS, L Tarr C, Gerner-Smidt P, Datta AR (2012) Genomic characterization of Listeria monocytogenes strains involved in a multistate listeriosis outbreak associated with cantaloupe in US. PLoS One 7(7):e42448. doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0042448
Landman D, Bratu S, Kochar S, Panwar M, Trehan M, Doymaz M, Quale J (2007) Evolution of antimicrobial resistance among Pseudomonas aeruginosa, Acinetobacter baumannii and Klebsiella pneumoniae in Brooklyn, NY. J Antimicrob Chemother 60(1):78–82. doi:10.1093/jac/dkm129
Langfelder K, Jahn B, Gehringer H, Schmidt A, Wanner G, Brakhage AA (1998) Identification of a polyketide synthase gene (pksP) of Aspergillus fumigatus involved in conidial pigment biosynthesis and virulence. Med Microbiol Immunol 187(2):79–89
Lebron F, Vassallo R, Puri V, Limper AH (2003) Pneumocystis carinii cell wall beta-glucans initiate macrophage inflammatory responses through NF-kappaB activation. J Biol Chem 278(27):25001–25008. doi:10.1074/jbc.M301426200
Lee HC, Chuang YC, Yu WL, Lee NY, Chang CM, Ko NY, Wang LR, Ko WC (2006) Clinical implications of hypermucoviscosity phenotype in Klebsiella pneumoniae isolates: association with invasive syndrome in patients with community-acquired bacteraemia. J Intern Med 259(6):606–614. doi:10.1111/j.1365-2796.2006.01641.x
Leid JG, Willson CJ, Shirtliff ME, Hassett DJ, Parsek MR, Jeffers AK (2005) The exopolysaccharide alginate protects Pseudomonas aeruginosa biofilm bacteria from IFN-gamma-mediated macrophage killing. J Immunol 175(11):7512–7518
Lelievre L, Groh M, Angebault C, Maherault AC, Didier E, Bougnoux ME (2013) Azole resistant Aspergillus fumigatus: an emerging problem. Med Mal Infect 43(4):139–145. doi:10.1016/j.medmal.2013.02.010
Lessa FC, Gould CV, McDonald LC (2012) Current status of Clostridium difficile infection epidemiology. Clin Infect Dis 55(Suppl 2):S65–S70. doi:10.1093/cid/cis319
Leung WS, Chu CM, Tsang KY, Lo FH, Lo KF, Ho PL (2006) Fulminant community-acquired Acinetobacter baumannii pneumonia as a distinct clinical syndrome. Chest 129(1):102–109. doi:10.1378/chest.129.1.102
Levitz SM (1991) The ecology of Cryptococcus neoformans and the epidemiology of cryptococcosis. Rev Infect Dis 13(6):1163–1169
Li J, Nation RL, Milne RW, Turnidge JD, Coulthard K (2005) Evaluation of colistin as an agent against multi-resistant Gram-negative bacteria. Int J Antimicrob Agents 25(1):11–25. doi:10.1016/j.ijantimicag.2004.10.001
Li M, Cheung GY, Hu J, Wang D, Joo HS, Deleo FR, Otto M (2010) Comparative analysis of virulence and toxin expression of global community-associated methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus strains. J Infect Dis 202(12):1866–1876. doi:10.1086/657419
Li W, Sun G, Yu Y, Li N, Chen M, Jin R, Jiao Y, Wu H (2014) Increasing occurrence of antimicrobial-resistant hypervirulent (hypermucoviscous) Klebsiella pneumoniae isolates in China. Clin Infect Dis 58(2):225–232. doi:10.1093/cid/cit675
Limper AH, Offord KP, Smith TF, Martin WJ 2nd (1989) Pneumocystis carinii pneumonia. Differences in lung parasite number and inflammation in patients with and without AIDS. Am Rev Respir Dis 140(5):1204–1209. doi:10.1164/ajrccm/140.5.1204
Lindahl G, Stalhammar-Carlemalm M, Areschoug T (2005) Surface proteins of Streptococcus agalactiae and related proteins in other bacterial pathogens. Clin Microbiol Rev 18(1):102–127. doi:10.1128/CMR.18.1.102-127.2005
Linden SK, Bierne H, Sabet C, Png CW, Florin TH, McGuckin MA, Cossart P (2008) Listeria monocytogenes internalins bind to the human intestinal mucin MUC2. Arch Microbiol 190(1):101–104. doi:10.1007/s00203-008-0358-6
Lindsay D, von Holy A (2006) Bacterial biofilms within the clinical setting: what healthcare professionals should know. J Hosp Infect 64(4):313–325. doi:10.1016/j.jhin.2006.06.028
Lockhart SR, Abramson MA, Beekmann SE, Gallagher G, Riedel S, Diekema DJ, Quinn JP, Doern GV (2007) Antimicrobial resistance among Gram-negative bacilli causing infections in intensive care unit patients in the United States between 1993 and 2004. J Clin Microbiol 45(10):3352–3359. doi:10.1128/JCM.01284-07
Loffler B, Hussain M, Grundmeier M, Bruck M, Holzinger D, Varga G, Roth J, Kahl BC, Proctor RA, Peters G (2010) Staphylococcus aureus panton-valentine leukocidin is a very potent cytotoxic factor for human neutrophils. PLoS Pathog 6(1):e1000715. doi:10.1371/journal.ppat.1000715
Loffler B, Tuchscherr L, Niemann S, Peters G (2013) Staphylococcus aureus persistence in non-professional phagocytes. Int J Med Microbiol. doi:10.1016/j.ijmm.2013.11.011
Looney WJ, Narita M, Muhlemann K (2009) Stenotrophomonas maltophilia: an emerging opportunist human pathogen. Lancet Infect Dis 9(5):312–323. doi:10.1016/S1473-3099(09)70083-0
Lopez DJ, Collado MI, Ibarguren M, Vasil AI, Vasil ML, Goni FM, Alonso A (2011) Multiple phospholipid substrates of phospholipase C/sphingomyelinase HR2 from Pseudomonas aeruginosa. Chem Phys Lipids 164(1):78–82. doi:10.1016/j.chemphyslip.2010.11.001
Luo G, Samaranayake LP, Yau JY (2001) Candida species exhibit differential in vitro hemolytic activities. J Clin Microbiol 39(8):2971–2974. doi:10.1128/JCM.39.8.2971-2974.2001
Lynch JP 3rd, Zhanel GG (2010) Streptococcus pneumoniae: epidemiology and risk factors, evolution of antimicrobial resistance, and impact of vaccines. Curr Opin Pulm Med 16(3):217–225. doi:10.1097/MCP.0b013e3283385653
MacDougall L, Kidd SE, Galanis E, Mak S, Leslie MJ, Cieslak PR, Kronstad JW, Morshed MG, Bartlett KH (2007) Spread of Cryptococcus gattii in British Columbia, Canada, and detection in the Pacific Northwest, USA. Emerg Infect Dis 13(1):42–50. doi:10.3201/eid1301.060827
Mack D, Fischer W, Krokotsch A, Leopold K, Hartmann R, Egge H, Laufs R (1996) The intercellular adhesin involved in biofilm accumulation of Staphylococcus epidermidis is a linear beta-1,6-linked glucosaminoglycan: purification and structural analysis. J Bacteriol 178(1):175–183
Magee AD, Yother J (2001) Requirement for capsule in colonization by Streptococcus pneumoniae. Infect Immun 69(6):3755–3761. doi:10.1128/IAI.69.6.3755-3761.2001
Mandac I, Prkacin I, Matovinovic MS, Sustercic D (2010) Septic arthritis due to Streptococcus sanguis. Coll Antropol 34(2):661–664
Mane A, Gaikwad S, Bembalkar S, Risbud A (2012) Increased expression of virulence attributes in oral Candida albicans isolates from human immunodeficiency virus-positive individuals. J Med Microbiol 61(Pt 2):285–290. doi:10.1099/jmm.0.036269-0
Marks LR, Davidson BA, Knight PR, Hakansson AP (2013) Interkingdom signaling induces Streptococcus pneumoniae biofilm dispersion and transition from asymptomatic colonization to disease. MBio 4(4). doi:10.1128/mBio.00438-13
Martner A, Dahlgren C, Paton JC, Wold AE (2008) Pneumolysin released during Streptococcus pneumoniae autolysis is a potent activator of intracellular oxygen radical production in neutrophils. Infect Immun 76(9):4079–4087. doi:10.1128/IAI.01747-07
Mattila E, Uusitalo-Seppala R, Wuorela M, Lehtola L, Nurmi H, Ristikankare M, Moilanen V, Salminen K, Seppala M, Mattila PS, Anttila VJ, Arkkila P (2012) Fecal transplantation, through colonoscopy, is effective therapy for recurrent Clostridium difficile infection. Gastroenterology 142(3):490–496. doi:10.1053/j.gastro.2011.11.037
McCaskill ML, Mason EO Jr, Kaplan SL, Hammerman W, Lamberth LB, Hultén KG (2007) Increase of the USA300 clone among community-acquired methicillin-susceptible Staphylococcus aureus causing invasive infections. Pediatr Infect Dis J 26(12):1122–1127
McDougal LK, Steward CD, Killgore GE, Chaitram JM, McAllister SK, Tenover FC (2003) Pulsed-field gel electrophoresis typing of oxacillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus isolates from the United States: establishing a national database. J Clin Microbiol 41(11):5113–5120
McKenzie CG, Koser U, Lewis LE, Bain JM, Mora-Montes HM, Barker RN, Gow NA, Erwig LP (2010) Contribution of Candida albicans cell wall components to recognition by and escape from murine macrophages. Infect Immun 78(4):1650–1658. doi:10.1128/IAI.00001-10
Meersseman W, Lagrou K, Maertens J, Van Wijngaerden E (2007) Invasive aspergillosis in the intensive care unit. Clin Infect Dis 45(2):205–216. doi:10.1086/518852
Melin P (2011) Neonatal group B streptococcal disease: from pathogenesis to preventive strategies. Clin Microbiol Infect 17(9):1294–1303. doi:10.1111/j.1469-0691.2011.03576.x
Mengaud J, Ohayon H, Gounon P, Mege RM, Cossart P (1996) E-cadherin is the receptor for internalin, a surface protein required for entry of L. monocytogenes into epithelial cells. Cell 84(6):923–932
Merson MH, O’Malley J, Serwadda D, Apisuk C (2008) The history and challenge of HIV prevention. Lancet 372(9637):475–488. doi:10.1016/S0140-6736(08)60884-3
Miller RF, Huang L, Walzer PD (2013) Pneumocystis pneumonia associated with human immunodeficiency virus. Clin Chest Med 34(2):229–241. doi:10.1016/j.ccm.2013.02.001
Milohanic E, Jonquieres R, Cossart P, Berche P, Gaillard JL (2001) The autolysin Ami contributes to the adhesion of Listeria monocytogenes to eukaryotic cells via its cell wall anchor. Mol Microbiol 39(5):1212–1224
Minino AM, Murphy SL, Xu J, Kochanek KD (2011) Deaths: final data for 2008. Natl Vital Stat Rep 59(10):1–126
Mishra NN, Prasad T, Sharma N, Payasi A, Prasad R, Gupta DK, Singh R (2007) Pathogenicity and drug resistance in Candida albicans and other yeast species. A review. Acta Microbiol Immunol Hung 54(3):201–235. doi:10.1556/AMicr.54.2007.3.1
Mistry RD (2013) Skin and soft tissue infections. Pediatr Clin North Am 60(5):1063–1082. doi:10.1016/j.pcl.2013.06.011
Mitchell TJ (2003) The pathogenesis of streptococcal infections: from tooth decay to meningitis. Nat Rev Microbiol 1(3):219–230. doi:10.1038/nrmicro771
Moellering RC Jr (2010) NDM-1—a cause for worldwide concern. N Engl J Med 363(25):2377–2379. doi:10.1056/NEJMp1011715
Moet GJ, Jones RN, Biedenbach DJ, Stilwell MG, Fritsche TR (2007) Contemporary causes of skin and soft tissue infections in North America, Latin America, and Europe: report from the SENTRY Antimicrobial Surveillance Program (1998-2004). Diagn Microbiol Infect Dis 57(1):7–13. doi:10.1016/j.diagmicrobio.2006.05.009
Moran GJ, Krishnadasan A, Gorwitz RJ, Fosheim GE, McDougal LK, Carey RB, Talan DA (2006) Methicillin-resistant S. aureus infections among patients in the emergency department. N Engl J Med 355(7):666–674
Moreillon P, Que YA (2004) Infective endocarditis. Lancet 363(9403):139–149. doi:10.1016/S0140-6736(03)15266-X
Mori S, Sugimoto M (2012) Pneumocystis jirovecii infection: an emerging threat to patients with rheumatoid arthritis. Rheumatology (Oxford) 51(12):2120–2130. doi:10.1093/rheumatology/kes244
Moxon ER, Kroll JS (1988) Type b capsular polysaccharide as a virulence factor of Haemophilus influenzae. Vaccine 6(2):113–115
Mukundan D, Ecevit Z, Patel M, Marrs CF, Gilsdorf JR (2007) Pharyngeal colonization dynamics of Haemophilus influenzae and Haemophilus haemolyticus in healthy adult carriers. J Clin Microbiol 45(10):3207–3217. doi:10.1128/JCM.00492-07
Mullaney DM (2001) Group B streptococcal infections in newborns. J Obstet Gynecol Neonatal Nurs 30(6):649–658
Murphy CN, Clegg S (2012) Klebsiella pneumoniae and type 3 fimbriae: nosocomial infection, regulation and biofilm formation. Future Microbiol 7(8):991–1002. doi:10.2217/fmb.12.74
Murphy TF, Lesse AJ, Kirkham C, Zhong H, Sethi S, Munson RS Jr (2011) A clonal group of nontypeable Haemophilus influenzae with two IgA proteases is adapted to infection in chronic obstructive pulmonary disease. PLoS One 6(10):e25923. doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0025923
Murphy CN, Mortensen MS, Krogfelt KA, Clegg S (2013) Role of Klebsiella pneumoniae type 1 and type 3 fimbriae in colonizing silicone tubes implanted into the bladders of mice as a model of catheter-associated urinary tract infections. Infect Immun 81(8):3009–3017. doi:10.1128/IAI.00348-13
Myint TT, Madhava H, Balmer P, Christopoulou D, Attal S, Menegas D, Sprenger R, Bonnet E (2013) The impact of 7-valent pneumococcal conjugate vaccine on invasive pneumococcal disease: a literature review. Adv Ther 30(2):127–151. doi:10.1007/s12325-013-0007-6
Mylonakis E, Calderwood SB (2001) Infective endocarditis in adults. N Engl J Med 345(18):1318–1330. doi:10.1056/NEJMra010082
Naas T, Cuzon G, Villegas MV, Lartigue MF, Quinn JP, Nordmann P (2008) Genetic structures at the origin of acquisition of the beta-lactamase bla KPC gene. Antimicrob Agents Chemother 52(4):1257–1263. doi:10.1128/AAC.01451-07
Naglik JR, Challacombe SJ, Hube B (2003) Candida albicans secreted aspartyl proteinases in virulence and pathogenesis. Microbiol Mol Biol Rev 67(3):400–428, table of contents
Nandyal RR (2008) Update on group B streptococcal infections: perinatal and neonatal periods. J Perinat Neonatal Nurs 22(3):230–237. doi:10.1097/01.JPN.0000333925.30328.fd
National Nosocomial Infections Surveillance System (2004) National Nosocomial Infections Surveillance (NNIS) System Report, data summary from January 1992 through June 2004, issued October 2004. Am J Infect Control 32(8):470–485. doi:10.1016/S0196655304005425
Navarre WW, Schneewind O (1999) Surface proteins of gram-positive bacteria and mechanisms of their targeting to the cell wall envelope. Microbiol Mol Biol Rev 63(1):174–229
Neonakis IK, Spandidos DA, Petinaki E (2011) Confronting multidrug-resistant Acinetobacter baumannii: a review. Int J Antimicrob Agents 37(2):102–109. doi:10.1016/j.ijantimicag.2010.10.014
Nett JE, Crawford K, Marchillo K, Andes DR (2010a) Role of Fks1p and matrix glucan in Candida albicans biofilm resistance to an echinocandin, pyrimidine, and polyene. Antimicrob Agents Chemother 54(8):3505–3508. doi:10.1128/AAC.00227-10
Nett JE, Sanchez H, Cain MT, Andes DR (2010b) Genetic basis of Candida biofilm resistance due to drug-sequestering matrix glucan. J Infect Dis 202(1):171–175. doi:10.1086/651200
Nicodemo AC, Paez JI (2007) Antimicrobial therapy for Stenotrophomonas maltophilia infections. Eur J Clin Microbiol Infect Dis 26(4):229–237. doi:10.1007/s10096-007-0279-3
Nobile CJ, Fox EP, Nett JE, Sorrells TR, Mitrovich QM, Hernday AD, Tuch BB, Andes DR, Johnson AD (2012) A recently evolved transcriptional network controls biofilm development in Candida albicans. Cell 148(1–2):126–138. doi:10.1016/j.cell.2011.10.048
Nseir S, Di Pompeo C, Brisson H, Dewavrin F, Tissier S, Diarra M, Boulo M, Durocher A (2006) Intensive care unit-acquired Stenotrophomonas maltophilia: incidence, risk factors, and outcome. Crit Care 10(5):R143. doi:10.1186/cc5063
O’Gara JP, Humphreys H (2001) Staphylococcus epidermidis biofilms: importance and implications. J Med Microbiol 50(7):582–587
O’Riordan M, Moors MA, Portnoy DA (2003) Listeria intracellular growth and virulence require host-derived lipoic acid. Science 302(5644):462–464. doi:10.1126/science.1088170
Obert C, Sublett J, Kaushal D, Hinojosa E, Barton T, Tuomanen EI, Orihuela CJ (2006) Identification of a candidate Streptococcus pneumoniae core genome and regions of diversity correlated with invasive pneumococcal disease. Infect Immun 74(8):4766–4777. doi:10.1128/IAI.00316-06
Obritsch MD, Fish DN, MacLaren R, Jung R (2005) Nosocomial infections due to multidrug-resistant Pseudomonas aeruginosa: epidemiology and treatment options. Pharmacotherapy 25(10):1353–1364. doi:10.1592/phco.2005.25.10.1353
Osanai A, Li SJ, Asano K, Sashinami H, Hu DL, Nakane A (2013) Fibronectin binding protein, FbpA, is an adhesin responsible for pathogenesis of Listeria monocytogenes infection. Microbiol Immunol. doi:10.1111/j.1348-0421.12030
Otto M (2009) Staphylococcus epidermidis—the ‘accidental’ pathogen. Nat Rev Microbiol 7(8):555–567. doi:10.1038/nrmicro2182
Otto M (2012) Molecular basis of Staphylococcus epidermidis infections. Semin Immunopathol 34(2):201–214. doi:10.1007/s00281-011-0296-2
Palella FJ Jr, Baker RK, Moorman AC, Chmiel JS, Wood KC, Brooks JT, Holmberg SD, HIV Outpatient Study Investigators (2006) Mortality in the highly active antiretroviral therapy era: changing causes of death and disease in the HIV outpatient study. J Acquir Immune Defic Syndr 43(1):27–34. doi:10.1097/01.qai.0000233310.90484.16
Pamer EG (2004) Immune responses to Listeria monocytogenes. Nat Rev Immunol 4(10):812–823. doi:10.1038/nri1461
Pan Y, Breidt F Jr, Kathariou S (2006) Resistance of Listeria monocytogenes biofilms to sanitizing agents in a simulated food processing environment. Appl Environ Microbiol 72(12):7711–7717. doi:10.1128/AEM.01065-06
Pancotto L, De Angelis G, Bizzarri E, Barocchi MA, Del Giudice G, Moschioni M, Ruggiero P (2013) Expression of the Streptococcus pneumoniae pilus-1 undergoes on and off switching during colonization in mice. Sci Rep 3:2040. doi:10.1038/srep02040
Papaioannides D, Boniatsi L, Korantzopoulos P, Sinapidis D, Giotis C (2006) Acute septic arthritis due to Streptococcus sanguis. Med Princ Pract 15(1):77–79. doi:10.1159/000089391
Pappas PG, Rex JH, Lee J, Hamill RJ, Larsen RA, Powderly W, Kauffman CA, Hyslop N, Mangino JE, Chapman S, Horowitz HW, Edwards JE, Dismukes WE, NIAID Mycoses Study Group (2003) A prospective observational study of candidemia: epidemiology, therapy, and influences on mortality in hospitalized adult and pediatric patients. Clin Infect Dis 37(5):634–643. doi:10.1086/376906
Park BJ, Wannemuehler KA, Marston BJ, Govender N, Pappas PG, Chiller TM (2009) Estimation of the current global burden of cryptococcal meningitis among persons living with HIV/AIDS. AIDS 23(4):525–530. doi:10.1097/QAD.0b013e328322ffac
Paterson Y, Guirnalda PD, Wood LM (2010) Listeria and Salmonella bacterial vectors of tumor-associated antigens for cancer immunotherapy. Semin Immunol 22(3):183–189. doi:10.1016/j.smim.2010.02.002
Paton JC, Ferrante A (1983) Inhibition of human polymorphonuclear leukocyte respiratory burst, bactericidal activity, and migration by pneumolysin. Infect Immun 41(3):1212–1216
Pedersen SS, Kharazmi A, Espersen F, Hoiby N (1990) Pseudomonas aeruginosa alginate in cystic fibrosis sputum and the inflammatory response. Infect Immun 58(10):3363–3368
Peeters A, Waer M, Michielsen P, Verbist L, Carton H (1989) Listeria monocytogenes meningitis. Clin Neurol Neurosurg 91(1):29–36
Pendleton JN, Gorman SP, Gilmore BF (2013) Clinical relevance of the ESKAPE pathogens. Expert Rev Anti Infect Ther 11(3):297–308. doi:10.1586/eri.13.12
Perfect JR, Casadevall A (2002) Cryptococcosis. Infect Dis Clin North Am 16(4):837–874, v–vi
Pfaller MA, Diekema DJ (2007) Epidemiology of invasive candidiasis: a persistent public health problem. Clin Microbiol Rev 20(1):133–163. doi:10.1128/CMR.00029-06
Pfaller MA, Diekema DJ, Procop GW, Rinaldi MG (2007) Multicenter comparison of the VITEK 2 antifungal susceptibility test with the CLSI broth microdilution reference method for testing amphotericin B, flucytosine, and voriconazole against Candida spp. J Clin Microbiol 45(11):3522–3528. doi:10.1128/JCM.00403-07
Pfaller M, Neofytos D, Diekema D, Azie N, Meier-Kriesche HU, Quan SP, Horn D (2012) Epidemiology and outcomes of candidemia in 3648 patients: data from the Prospective Antifungal Therapy (PATH Alliance(R)) registry, 2004-2008. Diagn Microbiol Infect Dis 74(4):323–331. doi:10.1016/j.diagmicrobio.2012.10.003
Pietrocola G, Schubert A, Visai L, Torti M, Fitzgerald JR, Foster TJ, Reinscheid DJ, Speziale P (2005) FbsA, a fibrinogen-binding protein from Streptococcus agalactiae, mediates platelet aggregation. Blood 105(3):1052–1059. doi:10.1182/blood-2004-06-2149
Planet PJ, Larussa SJ, Dana A, Smith H, Xu A, Ryan C, Uhlemann AC, Boundy S, Goldberg J, Narechania A, Kulkarni R, Ratner AJ, Geoghegan JA, Kolokotronis SO, Prince A (2013) Emergence of the epidemic methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus strain USA300 coincides with horizontal transfer of the arginine catabolic mobile element and speG-mediated adaptations for survival on skin. MBio 4(6). doi:10.1128/mBio.00889-13
Podschun R, Ullmann U (1998) Klebsiella spp. as nosocomial pathogens: epidemiology, taxonomy, typing methods, and pathogenicity factors. Clin Microbiol Rev 11(4):589–603
Pompilio A, Crocetta V, Confalone P, Nicoletti M, Petrucca A, Guarnieri S, Fiscarelli E, Savini V, Piccolomini R, Di Bonaventura G (2010) Adhesion to and biofilm formation on IB3-1 bronchial cells by Stenotrophomonas maltophilia isolates from cystic fibrosis patients. BMC Microbiol 10:102. doi:10.1186/1471-2180-10-102
Popovich KJ, Weinstein RA, Hota B (2008) Are community-associated methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus (MRSA) strains replacing traditional nosocomial MRSA strains? Clin Infect Dis 46(6):787–794. doi:10.1086/528716
Prasad R, Kapoor K (2005) Multidrug resistance in yeast Candida. Int Rev Cytol 242:215–248. doi:10.1016/S0074-7696(04)42005-1
Puhan MA, Van Natta ML, Palella FJ, Addessi A, Meinert C, Ocular Complications of AIDS Research Group (2010) Excess mortality in patients with AIDS in the era of highly active antiretroviral therapy: temporal changes and risk factors. Clin Infect Dis 51(8):947–956. doi:10.1086/656415
Queenan AM, Bush K (2007) Carbapenemases: the versatile beta-lactamases. Clin Microbiol Rev 20(3):440–458. doi:10.1128/CMR.00001-07, table of contents
Ramage G, Vande Walle K, Wickes BL, Lopez-Ribot JL (2001) Standardized method for in vitro antifungal susceptibility testing of Candida albicans biofilms. Antimicrob Agents Chemother 45(9):2475–2479
Ramage G, Saville SP, Thomas DP, Lopez-Ribot JL (2005) Candida biofilms: an update. Eukaryot Cell 4(4):633–638. doi:10.1128/EC.4.4.633-638.2005
Rea MC, Alemayehu D, Ross RP, Hill C (2013) Gut solutions to a gut problem: bacteriocins, probiotics and bacteriophage for control of Clostridium difficile infection. J Med Microbiol 62(Pt 9):1369–1378. doi:10.1099/jmm.0.058933-0
Ribeiro MA, Miranda AE, Gambale W, Paula CR (2004) Prevalence and exoenzyme secretion by Candida albicans isolates from oral and vaginal mucosas of HIV-infected women. Mycopathologia 157(3):255–261
Richardson M, Lass-Florl C (2008) Changing epidemiology of systemic fungal infections. Clin Microbiol Infect 14(Suppl 4):5–24. doi:10.1111/j.1469-0691.2008.01978.x
Robbins N, Uppuluri P, Nett J, Rajendran R, Ramage G, Lopez-Ribot JL, Andes D, Cowen LE (2011) Hsp90 governs dispersion and drug resistance of fungal biofilms. PLoS Pathog 7(9):e1002257. doi:10.1371/journal.ppat.1002257
Robinson BW, Venaille TJ, Mendis AH, McAleer R (1990) Allergens as proteases: an Aspergillus fumigatus proteinase directly induces human epithelial cell detachment. J Allergy Clin Immunol 86(5):726–731
Roche FM, Downer R, Keane F, Speziale P, Park PW, Foster TJ (2004) The N-terminal A domain of fibronectin-binding proteins A and B promotes adhesion of Staphylococcus aureus to elastin. J Biol Chem 279(37):38433–38440. doi:10.1074/jbc.M402122200
Rogers KL, Fey PD, Rupp ME (2009) Coagulase-negative staphylococcal infections. Infect Dis Clin North Am 23(1):73–98. doi:10.1016/j.idc.2008.10.001
Rotstein C, Evans G, Born A, Grossman R, Light RB, Magder S, McTaggart B, Weiss K, Zhanel GG (2008) Clinical practice guidelines for hospital-acquired pneumonia and ventilator-associated pneumonia in adults. Can J Infect Dis Med Microbiol 19(1):19–53
Rupnik M, Wilcox MH, Gerding DN (2009) Clostridium difficile infection: new developments in epidemiology and pathogenesis. Nat Rev Microbiol 7(7):526–536. doi:10.1038/nrmicro2164
Saa Ibusquiza P, Herrera JJ, Cabo ML (2011) Resistance to benzalkonium chloride, peracetic acid and nisin during formation of mature biofilms by Listeria monocytogenes. Food Microbiol 28(3):418–425. doi:10.1016/j.fm.2010.09.014
Sabet C, Toledo-Arana A, Personnic N, Lecuit M, Dubrac S, Poupel O, Gouin E, Nahori MA, Cossart P, Bierne H (2008) The Listeria monocytogenes virulence factor InlJ is specifically expressed in vivo and behaves as an adhesin. Infect Immun 76(4):1368–1378. doi:10.1128/IAI.01519-07
Sabiiti W, May RC (2012) Mechanisms of infection by the human fungal pathogen Cryptococcus neoformans. Future Microbiol 7(11):1297–1313. doi:10.2217/fmb.12.102
Safdar A, Rolston KV (2007) Stenotrophomonas maltophilia: changing spectrum of a serious bacterial pathogen in patients with cancer. Clin Infect Dis 45(12):1602–1609. doi:10.1086/522998
Sardi JC, Scorzoni L, Bernardi T, Fusco-Almeida AM, Mendes Giannini MJ (2013) Candida species: current epidemiology, pathogenicity, biofilm formation, natural antifungal products and new therapeutic options. J Med Microbiol 62(Pt 1):10–24. doi:10.1099/jmm.0.045054-0
Saville SP, Lazzell AL, Monteagudo C, Lopez-Ribot JL (2003) Engineered control of cell morphology in vivo reveals distinct roles for yeast and filamentous forms of Candida albicans during infection. Eukaryot Cell 2(5):1053–1060
Scallan E, Hoekstra RM, Angulo FJ, Tauxe RV, Widdowson MA, Roy SL, Jones JL, Griffin PM (2011) Foodborne illness acquired in the United States—major pathogens. Emerg Infect Dis 17(1):7–15. doi:10.3201/eid1701.091101p1
Scherr TD, Heim CE, Morrison JM, Kielian T (2014) Hiding in plain sight: interplay between staphylococcal biofilms and host immunity. Front Immunol 5:37. doi:10.3389/fimmu.2014.00037
Schild L, Heyken A, de Groot PW, Hiller E, Mock M, de Koster C, Horn U, Rupp S, Hube B (2011) Proteolytic cleavage of covalently linked cell wall proteins by Candida albicans Sap9 and Sap10. Eukaryot Cell 10(1):98–109. doi:10.1128/EC.00210-10
Sebeny PJ, Riddle MS, Petersen K (2008) Acinetobacter baumannii skin and soft-tissue infection associated with war trauma. Clin Infect Dis 47(4):444–449. doi:10.1086/590568
Sepkowitz KA (2002) Opportunistic infections in patients with and patients without Acquired Immunodeficiency Syndrome. Clin Infect Dis 34(8):1098–1107. doi:10.1086/339548
Severo CB, Xavier MO, Gazzoni AF, Severo LC (2009) Cryptococcosis in children. Paediatr Respir Rev 10(4):166–171. doi:10.1016/j.prrv.2009.06.009
Shaw L, Golonka E, Potempa J, Foster SJ (2004) The role and regulation of the extracellular proteases of Staphylococcus aureus. Microbiology 150(Pt 1):217–228
Shivshankar P, Sanchez C, Rose LF, Orihuela CJ (2009) The Streptococcus pneumoniae adhesin PsrP binds to Keratin 10 on lung cells. Mol Microbiol 73(4):663–679. doi:10.1111/j.1365-2958.2009.06796.x
Shon AS, Bajwa RP, Russo TA (2013) Hypervirulent (hypermucoviscous) Klebsiella pneumoniae: a new and dangerous breed. Virulence 4(2):107–118. doi:10.4161/viru.22718
Simoons-Smit AM, Verweij-van Vught AM, MacLaren DM (1986) The role of K antigens as virulence factors in Klebsiella. J Med Microbiol 21(2):133–137
Simpson JA, Smith SE, Dean RT (1989) Scavenging by alginate of free radicals released by macrophages. Free Radic Biol Med 6(4):347–353
Singh N, Alexander BD, Lortholary O, Dromer F, Gupta KL, John GT, del Busto R, Klintmalm GB, Somani J, Lyon GM, Pursell K, Stosor V, Munoz P, Limaye AP, Kalil AC, Pruett TL, Garcia-Diaz J, Humar A, Houston S, House AA, Wray D, Orloff S, Dowdy LA, Fisher RA, Heitman J, Wagener MM, Husain S (2008) Pulmonary cryptococcosis in solid organ transplant recipients: clinical relevance of serum cryptococcal antigen. Clin Infect Dis 46(2):e12–e18. doi:10.1086/524738
Singh N, Forrest G, AST Infectious Diseases Community of Practice (2009) Cryptococcosis in solid organ transplant recipients. Am J Transplant 9(Suppl 4):S192–S198. doi:10.1111/j.1600-6143.2009.02911.x
Smith JJ, Travis SM, Greenberg EP, Welsh MJ (1996) Cystic fibrosis airway epithelia fail to kill bacteria because of abnormal airway surface fluid. Cell 85(2):229–236
Snitkin ES, Zelazny AM, Thomas PJ, Stock F, NISC Comparative Sequencing Program Group, Henderson DK, Palmore TN, Segre JA (2012) Tracking a hospital outbreak of carbapenem-resistant Klebsiella pneumoniae with whole-genome sequencing. Sci Transl Med 4(148):148ra116. doi:10.1126/scitranslmed.3004129
Sobel JD (1997) Vaginitis. N Engl J Med 337(26):1896–1903. doi:10.1056/NEJM199712253372607
Spellerberg B, Rozdzinski E, Martin S, Weber-Heynemann J, Schnitzler N, Lutticken R, Podbielski A (1999) Lmb, a protein with similarities to the LraI adhesin family, mediates attachment of Streptococcus agalactiae to human laminin. Infect Immun 67(2):871–878
Stabler RA, Dawson LF, Phua LT, Wren BW (2008) Comparative analysis of BI/NAP1/027 hypervirulent strains reveals novel toxin B-encoding gene (tcdB) sequences. J Med Microbiol 57(Pt 6):771–775. doi:10.1099/jmm.0.47743-0
Stewart PS (2002) Mechanisms of antibiotic resistance in bacterial biofilms. Int J Med Microbiol 292(2):107–113. doi:10.1078/1438-4221-00196
Stingu CS, Eschrich K, Rodloff AC, Schaumann R, Jentsch H (2008) Periodontitis is associated with a loss of colonization by Streptococcus sanguinis. J Med Microbiol 57(Pt 4):495–499. doi:10.1099/jmm.0.47649-0
Stinson MW, Safulko K, Levine MJ (1991) Adherence of Porphyromonas (Bacteroides) gingivalis to Streptococcus sanguis in vitro. Infect Immun 59(1):102–108
Struve C, Bojer M, Krogfelt KA (2008) Characterization of Klebsiella pneumoniae type 1 fimbriae by detection of phase variation during colonization and infection and impact on virulence. Infect Immun 76(9):4055–4065. doi:10.1128/IAI.00494-08
Stubbs S, Rupnik M, Gibert M, Brazier J, Duerden B, Popoff M (2000) Production of actin-specific ADP-ribosyltransferase (binary toxin) by strains of Clostridium difficile. FEMS Microbiol Lett 186(2):307–312
Sudbery PE (2011) Growth of Candida albicans hyphae. Nat Rev Microbiol 9(10):737–748. doi:10.1038/nrmicro2636
Sun HY, Wagener MM, Singh N (2009) Cryptococcosis in solid-organ, hematopoietic stem cell, and tissue transplant recipients: evidence-based evolving trends. Clin Infect Dis 48(11):1566–1576. doi:10.1086/598936
Sun Y, Karmakar M, Taylor PR, Rietsch A, Pearlman E (2012) ExoS and ExoT ADP ribosyltransferase activities mediate Pseudomonas aeruginosa keratitis by promoting neutrophil apoptosis and bacterial survival. J Immunol 188(4):1884–1895. doi:10.4049/jimmunol.1102148
Surewaard BG, de Haas CJ, Vervoort F, Rigby KM, DeLeo FR, Otto M, van Strijp JA, Nijland R (2013) Staphylococcal alpha-phenol soluble modulins contribute to neutrophil lysis after phagocytosis. Cell Microbiol 15(8):1427–1437. doi:10.1111/cmi.12130
Swiatecka-Urban A, Moreau-Marquis S, Maceachran DP, Connolly JP, Stanton CR, Su JR, Barnaby R, O’Toole GA, Stanton BA (2006) Pseudomonas aeruginosa inhibits endocytic recycling of CFTR in polarized human airway epithelial cells. Am J Physiol Cell Physiol 290(3):C862–C872. doi:10.1152/ajpcell.00108.2005
Tablan OC, Anderson LJ, Besser R, Bridges C, Hajjeh R, CDC, Healthcare Infection Control Practices Advisory Committee (2004) Guidelines for preventing health-care—associated pneumonia, 2003: recommendations of CDC and the Healthcare Infection Control Practices Advisory Committee. MMWR Recomm Rep 53(RR-3):1–36
Talan DA, Krishnadasan A, Gorwitz RJ, Fosheim GE, Limbago B, Albrecht V, Moran GJ, EMERGEncy ID Net Study Group (2011) Comparison of Staphylococcus aureus from skin and soft-tissue infections in US emergency department patients, 2004 and 2008. Clin Infect Dis 53(2):144–149. doi:10.1093/cid/cir308
Tan CK, Liaw SJ, Yu CJ, Teng LJ, Hsueh PR (2008) Extensively drug-resistant Stenotrophomonas maltophilia in a tertiary care hospital in Taiwan: microbiologic characteristics, clinical features, and outcomes. Diagn Microbiol Infect Dis 60(2):205–210. doi:10.1016/j.diagmicrobio.2007.09.007
Tasaka S, Tokuda H (2012) Pneumocystis jirovecii pneumonia in non-HIV-infected patients in the era of novel immunosuppressive therapies. J Infect Chemother 18(6):793–806. doi:10.1007/s10156-012-0453-0
Taslim H (2009) Clostridium difficile infection in the elderly. Acta Med Indones 41(3):148–151
Tattevin P, Schwartz BS, Graber CJ, Volinski J, Bhukhen A, Bhukhen A, Mai TT, Vo NH, Dang DN, Phan TH (2012) Concurrent epidemics of skin and soft tissue infection and bloodstream infection due to community-associated methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus. Clin Infect Dis 55(6):781–788
Thammavongsa V, Missiakas DM, Schneewind O (2013) Staphylococcus aureus degrades neutrophil extracellular traps to promote immune cell death. Science 342(6160):863–866. doi:10.1126/science.1242255
Thelestam M, Chaves-Olarte E (2000) Cytotoxic effects of the Clostridium difficile toxins. Curr Top Microbiol Immunol 250:85–96
Theriot CM, Koenigsknecht MJ, Carlson PE Jr, Hatton GE, Nelson AM, Li B, Huffnagle GB, Li JZ, Young VB (2014) Antibiotic-induced shifts in the mouse gut microbiome and metabolome increase susceptibility to Clostridium difficile infection. Nat Commun 5:3114. doi:10.1038/ncomms4114
Thomas CF Jr, Limper AH (2007) Current insights into the biology and pathogenesis of Pneumocystis pneumonia. Nat Rev Microbiol 5(4):298–308. doi:10.1038/nrmicro1621
Thurlow LR, Joshi GS, Clark JR, Spontak JS, Neely CJ, Maile R, Richardson AR (2013) Functional modularity of the arginine catabolic mobile element contributes to the success of USA300 methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus. Cell Host Microbe 13(1):100–107. doi:10.1016/j.chom.2012.11.012
Thwaites GE, Gant V (2011) Are bloodstream leukocytes Trojan Horses for the metastasis of Staphylococcus aureus? Nat Rev Microbiol 9(3):215–222
Tilney LG, Portnoy DA (1989) Actin filaments and the growth, movement, and spread of the intracellular bacterial parasite, Listeria monocytogenes. J Cell Biol 109(4 Pt 1):1597–1608
Tomee JF, Wierenga AT, Hiemstra PS, Kauffman HK (1997) Proteases from Aspergillus fumigatus induce release of proinflammatory cytokines and cell detachment in airway epithelial cell lines. J Infect Dis 176(1):300–303
Tong MJ (1972) Septic complications of war wounds. JAMA 219(8):1044–1047
Tronchin G, Bouchara JP, Annaix V, Robert R, Senet JM (1991) Fungal cell adhesion molecules in Candida albicans. Eur J Epidemiol 7(1):23–33
Tucker SC, Casadevall A (2002) Replication of Cryptococcus neoformans in macrophages is accompanied by phagosomal permeabilization and accumulation of vesicles containing polysaccharide in the cytoplasm. Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A 99(5):3165–3170. doi:10.1073/pnas.052702799
Uckay I, Pittet D, Vaudaux P, Sax H, Lew D, Waldvogel F (2009) Foreign body infections due to Staphylococcus epidermidis. Ann Med 41(2):109–119. doi:10.1080/07853890802337045
UNAIDS (2012) Global summary of the AIDS epidemic
UNAIDS (2013) UNAIDS report on the global AIDS epidemic 2013
van der Linden JW, Snelders E, Kampinga GA, Rijnders BJ, Mattsson E, Debets-Ossenkopp YJ, Kuijper EJ, Van Tiel FH, Melchers WJ, Verweij PE (2011) Clinical implications of azole resistance in Aspergillus fumigatus, The Netherlands, 2007-2009. Emerg Infect Dis 17(10):1846–1854. doi:10.3201/eid1710.110226
Van de Velde S, Nguyen HA, Van Bambeke F, Tulkens PM, Grellet J, Dubois V, Quentin C, Saux M-C (2008) Contrasting effects of human THP-1 cell differentiation on levofloxacin and moxifloxacin intracellular accumulation and activity against Staphylococcus aureus and Listeria monocytogenes. J Antimicrob Chemother 62(3):518–521
Van Mellaert L, Shahrooei M, Hofmans D, Eldere JV (2012) Immunoprophylaxis and immunotherapy of Staphylococcus epidermidis infections: challenges and prospects. Expert Rev Vaccines 11(3):319–334. doi:10.1586/erv.11.190
Velagapudi R, Hsueh YP, Geunes-Boyer S, Wright JR, Heitman J (2009) Spores as infectious propagules of Cryptococcus neoformans. Infect Immun 77(10):4345–4355. doi:10.1128/IAI.00542-09
Veldkamp KE, van Strijp JA (2009) Innate immune evasion by staphylococci. Adv Exp Med Biol 666:19–31
Vincent JL, Rello J, Marshall J, Silva E, Anzueto A, Martin CD, Moreno R, Lipman J, Gomersall C, Sakr Y, Reinhart K, EPIC II Group of Investigators (2009) International study of the prevalence and outcomes of infection in intensive care units. JAMA 302(21):2323–2329. doi:10.1001/jama.2009.1754
Visvesvara GS, Moura H, Schuster FL (2007) Pathogenic and opportunistic free-living amoebae: Acanthamoeba spp., Balamuthia mandrillaris, Naegleria fowleri, and Sappinia diploidea. FEMS Immunol Med Microbiol 50(1):1–26. doi:10.1111/j.1574-695X.2007.00232.x
von Eiff C, Becker K, Machka K, Stammer H, Peters G (2001) Nasal carriage as a source of Staphylococcus aureus bacteremia. Study Group. N Engl J Med 344(1):11–16. doi:10.1056/NEJM200101043440102
Walker AS, Eyre DW, Wyllie DH, Dingle KE, Harding RM, O’Connor L, Griffiths D, Vaughan A, Finney J, Wilcox MH, Crook DW, Peto TE (2012) Characterisation of Clostridium difficile hospital ward-based transmission using extensive epidemiological data and molecular typing. PLoS Med 9(2):e1001172. doi:10.1371/journal.pmed.1001172
Walsh EJ, O’Brien LM, Liang X, Hook M, Foster TJ (2004) Clumping factor B, a fibrinogen-binding MSCRAMM (microbial surface components recognizing adhesive matrix molecules) adhesin of Staphylococcus aureus, also binds to the tail region of type I cytokeratin 10. J Biol Chem 279(49):50691–50699. doi:10.1074/jbc.M408713200
Wampler JL, Kim KP, Jaradat Z, Bhunia AK (2004) Heat shock protein 60 acts as a receptor for the Listeria adhesion protein in Caco-2 cells. Infect Immun 72(2):931–936
Wann ER, Gurusiddappa S, Hook M (2000) The fibronectin-binding MSCRAMM FnbpA of Staphylococcus aureus is a bifunctional protein that also binds to fibrinogen. J Biol Chem 275(18):13863–13871
Wargo MJ, Gross MJ, Rajamani S, Allard JL, Lundblad LK, Allen GB, Vasil ML, Leclair LW, Hogan DA (2011) Hemolytic phospholipase C inhibition protects lung function during Pseudomonas aeruginosa infection. Am J Respir Crit Care Med 184(3):345–354. doi:10.1164/rccm.201103-0374OC
Warny M, Pepin J, Fang A, Killgore G, Thompson A, Brazier J, Frost E, McDonald LC (2005) Toxin production by an emerging strain of Clostridium difficile associated with outbreaks of severe disease in North America and Europe. Lancet 366(9491):1079–1084. doi:10.1016/S0140-6736(05)67420-X
Warren CA, Guerrant RL (2011) Pathogenic C difficile is here (and everywhere) to stay. Lancet 377(9759):8–9. doi:10.1016/S0140-6736(10)61885-5
Wasylnka JA, Simmer MI, Moore MM (2001) Differences in sialic acid density in pathogenic and non-pathogenic Aspergillus species. Microbiology 147(Pt 4):869–877
Waterman SR, Hacham M, Hu G, Zhu X, Park YD, Shin S, Panepinto J, Valyi-Nagy T, Beam C, Husain S, Singh N, Williamson PR (2007) Role of a CUF1/CTR4 copper regulatory axis in the virulence of Cryptococcus neoformans. J Clin Invest 117(3):794–802. doi:10.1172/JCI30006
Waters V, Atenafu EG, Salazar JG, Lu A, Yau Y, Matukas L, Tullis E, Ratjen F (2012) Chronic Stenotrophomonas maltophilia infection and exacerbation outcomes in cystic fibrosis. J Cyst Fibros 11(1):8–13. doi:10.1016/j.jcf.2011.07.008
Watnick P, Kolter R (2000) Biofilm, city of microbes. J Bacteriol 182(10):2675–2679
Watson DA, Musher DM (1999) A brief history of the pneumococcus in biomedical research. Semin Respir Infect 14(3):198–208
Watt JP, Wolfson LJ, O’Brien KL, Henkle E, Deloria-Knoll M, McCall N, Lee E, Levine OS, Hajjeh R, Mulholland K, Cherian T, Hib and Pneumococcal Global Burden of Disease Study Team (2009) Burden of disease caused by Haemophilus influenzae type b in children younger than 5 years: global estimates. Lancet 374(9693):903–911. doi:10.1016/S0140-6736(09)61203-4
Webb EL, Ekii AO, Pala P (2012) Epidemiology and immunology of helminth-HIV interactions. Curr Opin HIV AIDS 7(3):245–253. doi:10.1097/COH.0b013e32835210cd
Weidenmaier C, Kokai-Kun JF, Kulauzovic E, Kohler T, Thumm G, Stoll H, Gotz F, Peschel A (2008) Differential roles of sortase-anchored surface proteins and wall teichoic acid in Staphylococcus aureus nasal colonization. Int J Med Microbiol 298(5–6):505–513. doi:10.1016/j.ijmm.2007.11.006
Weigel LM, Clewell DB, Gill SR, Clark NC, McDougal LK, Flannagan SE, Kolonay JF, Shetty J, Killgore GE, Tenover FC (2003) Genetic analysis of a high-level vancomycin-resistant isolate of Staphylococcus aureus. Science 302(5650):1569–1571. doi:10.1126/science.1090956
Welch MD, Rosenblatt J, Skoble J, Portnoy DA, Mitchison TJ (1998) Interaction of human Arp2/3 complex and the Listeria monocytogenes ActA protein in actin filament nucleation. Science 281(5373):105–108
Wertheim HF, Walsh E, Choudhurry R, Melles DC, Boelens HA, Miajlovic H, Verbrugh HA, Foster T, van Belkum A (2008) Key role for clumping factor B in Staphylococcus aureus nasal colonization of humans. PLoS Med 5(1):e17. doi:10.1371/journal.pmed.0050017
Wescombe PA, Heng NC, Burton JP, Chilcott CN, Tagg JR (2009) Streptococcal bacteriocins and the case for Streptococcus salivarius as model oral probiotics. Future Microbiol 4(7):819–835. doi:10.2217/fmb.09.61
Williams JC, Lucas BJ, Knee C, Renzetti M, Donahue J (1992) Acute lung injury induced by Pseudomonas aeruginosa elastase in hamsters. Exp Lung Res 18(1):155–171
Xayarath B, Marquis H, Port GC, Freitag NE (2009) Listeria monocytogenes CtaP is a multifunctional cysteine transport-associated protein required for bacterial pathogenesis. Mol Microbiol 74(4):956–973. doi:10.1111/j.1365-2958.2009.06910.x
Yong D, Toleman MA, Giske CG, Cho HS, Sundman K, Lee K, Walsh TR (2009) Characterization of a new metallo-beta-lactamase gene, bla(NDM-1), and a novel erythromycin esterase gene carried on a unique genetic structure in Klebsiella pneumoniae sequence type 14 from India. Antimicrob Agents Chemother 53(12):5046–5054. doi:10.1128/AAC.00774-09
Young VB, Schmidt TM (2004) Antibiotic-associated diarrhea accompanied by large-scale alterations in the composition of the fecal microbiota. J Clin Microbiol 42(3):1203–1206
Zaragoza O, Chrisman CJ, Castelli MV, Frases S, Cuenca-Estrella M, Rodriguez-Tudela JL, Casadevall A (2008) Capsule enlargement in Cryptococcus neoformans confers resistance to oxidative stress suggesting a mechanism for intracellular survival. Cell Microbiol 10(10):2043–2057. doi:10.1111/j.1462-5822.2008.01186.x
Zgair AK, Chhibber S (2011) Adhesion of Stenotrophomonas maltophilia to mouse tracheal mucus is mediated through flagella. J Med Microbiol 60(Pt 7):1032–1037. doi:10.1099/jmm.0.026377-0
Zhang L, Li XZ, Poole K (2000) Multiple antibiotic resistance in Stenotrophomonas maltophilia: involvement of a multidrug efflux system. Antimicrob Agents Chemother 44(2):287–293
Zhang Q, Choo S, Finn A (2002) Immune responses to novel pneumococcal proteins pneumolysin, PspA, PsaA, and CbpA in adenoidal B cells from children. Infect Immun 70(10):5363–5369
Zhao WH, Hu ZQ (2010) Beta-lactamases identified in clinical isolates of Pseudomonas aeruginosa. Crit Rev Microbiol 36(3):245–258. doi:10.3109/1040841X.2010.481763
Author information
Authors and Affiliations
Corresponding author
Editor information
Editors and Affiliations
Rights and permissions
Copyright information
© 2016 Springer International Publishing Switzerland
About this chapter
Cite this chapter
Burkholder, K.M., O’Riordan, M.X.D. (2016). Opportunisitic Pathogens of Humans. In: Hurst, C. (eds) The Rasputin Effect: When Commensals and Symbionts Become Parasitic. Advances in Environmental Microbiology, vol 3. Springer, Cham. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-319-28170-4_11
Download citation
DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-319-28170-4_11
Published:
Publisher Name: Springer, Cham
Print ISBN: 978-3-319-28168-1
Online ISBN: 978-3-319-28170-4
eBook Packages: Biomedical and Life SciencesBiomedical and Life Sciences (R0)