Skip to main content
SpringerLink
Log in

Oral Manifestations in Diabetes

  • Living reference work entry
  • First Online:
Book cover Principles of Diabetes Mellitus

  • 1095 Accesses

Abstract

The classic pathophysiologic features of diabetes mellitus (DM), including immune dysregulation, vasculopathy, and neuropathy, predispose diabetic individuals to numerous oral complications. Individuals with diabetes are at increased risk for periodontal disease, salivary gland dysfunction, dental caries, mucosal abnormalities, and oral burning, all of which can negatively impact patient quality of life. The bidirectional relationship between diabetes and periodontal disease is of particular importance due to the negative effect of periodontitis on glycemic control and the potential benefit of periodontal therapy on glycemic control. Emerging evidence has also identified decreased healthcare costs in diabetic individuals receiving regular periodontal therapy. Unfortunately, despite the numerous oral manifestations of diabetes and their potential impact on systemic health, many diabetic individuals are not fully aware of the relationship between their diabetes and oral health. Close collaboration between the medical and dental team can positively benefit the diabetic population through early diagnosis and management of the oral complications of diabetes.

This is a preview of subscription content, log in via an institution to check access.

Access this chapter

Log in via an institution

Institutional subscriptions

References

  1. Löe H. Periodontal disease. The sixth complication of diabetes mellitus. Diabetes Care. 1993;16(1):329–34.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  2. Klokkevold P, Mealey B. Influence of systemic conditions. In: Newman M, Takei H, Klokkevold P, Carranza F, editors. Carranza’s clinical periodontology. St. Louis: Elsevier Saunders; 2015.

    Google Scholar 

  3. Newman MG, Takei HH, Klokkevold PR, Carranza FA. Carranza’s clinical periodontology. St. Louis: Elsevier Saunders; 2015.

    Google Scholar 

  4. Fiorellini J, Stathopoulou P. Clinical features of gingivitis. In: Newman M, Takei H, Klokkevold P, Carranza F, editors. Carranza’s clinical periodontology. St. Louis: Elsevier Saunders; 2015.

    Google Scholar 

  5. Ervasti T, Knuuttila M, Pohjamo L, Haukipuro K. Relation between control of diabetes and gingival bleeding. J Periodontol. 1985;56(3):154–7.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  6. de Pommereau V, Dargent-Paré C, Robert JJ, Brion M. Periodontal status in insulin-dependent diabetic adolescents. J Clin Periodontol. 1992;19(9 Pt 1):628–32.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  7. Cutler CW, Machen RL, Jotwani R, Iacopino AM. Heightened gingival inflammation and attachment loss in type 2 diabetics with hyperlipidemia. J Periodontol. 1999;70(11):1313–21.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  8. Cianciola LJ, Park BH, Bruck E, Mosovich L, Genco RJ. Prevalence of periodontal disease in insulin-dependent diabetes mellitus (juvenile diabetes). J Am Dent Assoc. 1982;104(5):653–60.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  9. Seppälä B, Seppälä M, Ainamo J. A longitudinal study on insulin-dependent diabetes mellitus and periodontal disease. J Clin Periodontol. 1993;20(3):161–5.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  10. Salvi GE, Kandylaki M, Troendle A, Persson GR, Lang NP. Experimental gingivitis in type 1 diabetics: a controlled clinical and microbiological study. J Clin Periodontol. 2005;32(3):310–6.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  11. Karjalainen KM, Knuuttila ML. The onset of diabetes and poor metabolic control increases gingival bleeding in children and adolescents with insulin-dependent diabetes mellitus. J Clin Periodontol. 1996;23(12):1060–7.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  12. NIDCR Data and Statistics: Periodontal (Gum) Disease: National Institute of Dental and Craniofacial Research; [updated May 28, 2014]. Available from: http://www.nidcr.nih.gov/DataStatistics/FindDataByTopic/GumDisease/

  13. Carranza F, Camargo P, Takei H. Bone loss and patterns of bone destruction. In: Newman M, Takei H, Klokkevold P, Carranza F, editors. Carranza’s clinical periodontology. St. Louis: Elsevier Saunders; 2015.

    Google Scholar 

  14. American Academy of Periodontology. Position paper: epidemiology of periodontal diseases. J Periodontol. 1996;67(9):935–45.

    Google Scholar 

  15. Ismail AI, Burt BA, Eklund SA. Epidemiologic patterns of smoking and periodontal disease in the United States. J Am Dent Assoc. 1983;106(5):617–21.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  16. Burt B. Research SiaTCotAAoP. Position paper: epidemiology of periodontal diseases. J Periodontol. 2005;76(8):1406–19.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  17. Novak K, Novak MJ. Clinical risk assessment. In: Newman M, Takei H, Klokkevold P, Carranza F, editors. Carranza’s clinical periodontology. St. Louis: Elsevier Saunders; 2015.

    Google Scholar 

  18. Persson GR. Diabetes and periodontal disease: an update for HealthCare Providers. Diabetes Spectrum. 2011;24(4):195–8.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  19. Eke PI, Dye BA, Wei L, Thornton-Evans GO, Genco RJ, CDC Periodontal Disease Surveillance workgroup: James Beck (University of North Carolina CH, U. S. A.), Gordon Douglass (Past President, American Academy of Periodontology), R.y Page (University of Washin). Prevalence of periodontitis in adults in the United States: 2009 and 2010. J Dent Res. 2012;91(10):914–20.

    Google Scholar 

  20. Eke PI, Dye BA, Wei L, Slade GD, Thornton-Evans GO, Borgnakke WS, et al. Update on prevalence of periodontitis in adults in the United States: NHANES 2009 to 2012. J Periodontol. 2015;86(5):611–22.

    Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  21. Papapanou PN. Periodontal diseases: epidemiology. Ann Periodontol. 1996;1(1):1–36.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  22. Mealey BL, Oates TW, Periodontology AAo. Diabetes mellitus and periodontal diseases. J Periodontol. 2006;77(8):1289–303.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  23. Mealey BL, Rose LF. Diabetes mellitus and inflammatory periodontal diseases. Curr Opin Endocrinol Diabetes Obes. 2008;15(2):135–41.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  24. Lakschevitz F, Aboodi G, Tenenbaum H, Glogauer M. Diabetes and periodontal diseases: interplay and links. Curr Diabetes Rev. 2011;7(6):433–9.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  25. Chee B, Park B, Bartold PM. Periodontitis and type II diabetes: a two-way relationship. Int J Evid Based Healthc. 2013;11(4):317–29.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  26. Borgnakke WS, Ylöstalo PV, Taylor GW, Genco RJ. Effect of periodontal disease on diabetes: systematic review of epidemiologic observational evidence. J Periodontol. 2013;84 Suppl 4:S135–52.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  27. Taylor GW. Bidirectional interrelationships between diabetes and periodontal diseases: an epidemiologic perspective. Ann Periodontol. 2001;6(1):99–112.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  28. Chávarry NG, Vettore MV, Sansone C, Sheiham A. The relationship between diabetes mellitus and destructive periodontal disease: a meta-analysis. Oral Health Prev Dent. 2009;7(2):107–27.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  29. Khader YS, Dauod AS, El-Qaderi SS, Alkafajei A, Batayha WQ. Periodontal status of diabetics compared with nondiabetics: a meta-analysis. J Diabetes Complications. 2006;20(1):59–68.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  30. Lalla E, Papapanou PN. Diabetes mellitus and periodontitis: a tale of two common interrelated diseases. Nat Rev Endocrinol. 2011;7(12):738–48.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  31. Chapple IL, Genco R, workshop wgotjEA. Diabetes and periodontal diseases: consensus report of the Joint EFP/AAP Workshop on Periodontitis and Systemic Diseases. J Periodontol. 2013;84 Suppl 4:S106–12.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  32. Taylor JJ, Preshaw PM, Lalla E. A review of the evidence for pathogenic mechanisms that may link periodontitis and diabetes. J Periodontol. 2013;84 Suppl 4:S113–34.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  33. Taylor GW, Burt BA, Becker MP, Genco RJ, Shlossman M, Knowler WC, et al. Severe periodontitis and risk for poor glycemic control in patients with non-insulin-dependent diabetes mellitus. J Periodontol. 1996;67 Suppl 10:1085–93.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  34. Demmer RT, Jacobs DR, Singh R, Zuk A, Rosenbaum M, Papapanou PN, et al. Periodontal bacteria and prediabetes prevalence in ORIGINS: the oral infections, glucose intolerance, and insulin resistance study. J Dent Res. 2015;94 Suppl 9:201S–11.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  35. Taylor GW, Burt BA, Becker MP, Genco RJ, Shlossman M, Knowler WC, et al. Non-insulin dependent diabetes mellitus and alveolar bone loss progression over 2 years. J Periodontol. 1998;69(1):76–83.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  36. Tervonen T, Karjalainen K, Knuuttila M, Huumonen S. Alveolar bone loss in type 1 diabetic subjects. J Clin Periodontol. 2000;27(8):567–71.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  37. Lalla E, Park DB, Papapanou PN, Lamster IB. Oral disease burden in northern Manhattan patients with diabetes mellitus. Am J Public Health. 2008;98 Suppl 9:S91–4.

    Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  38. Wu YY, Xiao E, Graves DT. Diabetes mellitus related bone metabolism and periodontal disease. Int J Oral Sci. 2015;7(2):63–72.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  39. Tsai C, Hayes C, Taylor GW. Glycemic control of type 2 diabetes and severe periodontal disease in the US adult population. Community Dent Oral Epidemiol. 2002;30(3):182–92.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  40. Kaur G, Holtfreter B, Rathmann W, Rathmann WG, Schwahn C, Wallaschofski H, et al. Association between type 1 and type 2 diabetes with periodontal disease and tooth loss. J Clin Periodontol. 2009;36(9):765–74.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  41. Bagdade JD, Root RK, Bulger RJ. Impaired leukocyte function in patients with poorly controlled diabetes. Diabetes. 1974;23(1):9–15.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  42. Molenaar DM, Palumbo PJ, Wilson WR, Ritts RE. Leukocyte chemotaxis in diabetic patients and their nondiabetic first-degree relatives. Diabetes. 1976;25 Suppl 2:880–3.

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  43. Bagdade JD, Stewart M, Walters E. Impaired granulocyte adherence. A reversible defect in host defense in patients with poorly controlled diabetes. Diabetes. 1978;27(6):677–81.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  44. Bagdade JD, Walters E. Impaired granulocyte adherence in mildly diabetic patients: effects of tolazamide treatment. Diabetes. 1980;29(4):309–11.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  45. Manouchehr-Pour M, Spagnuolo PJ, Rodman HM, Bissada NF. Comparison of neutrophil chemotactic response in diabetic patients with mild and severe periodontal disease. J Periodontol. 1981;52(8):410–5.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  46. McMullen JA, Van Dyke TE, Horoszewicz HU, Genco RJ. Neutrophil chemotaxis in individuals with advanced periodontal disease and a genetic predisposition to diabetes mellitus. J Periodontol. 1981;52(4):167–73.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  47. Shetty N, Thomas B, Ramesh A. Comparison of neutrophil functions in diabetic and healthy subjects with chronic generalized periodontitis. J Indian Soc Periodontol. 2008;12(2):41–4.

    Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  48. Mowat A, Baum J. Chemotaxis of polymorphonuclear leukocytes from patients with diabetes mellitus. N Engl J Med. 1971;284(12):621–7.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  49. Alba-Loureiro TC, Munhoz CD, Martins JO, Cerchiaro GA, Scavone C, Curi R, et al. Neutrophil function and metabolism in individuals with diabetes mellitus. Braz J Med Biol Res. 2007;40(8):1037–44.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  50. Naghibi M, Smith RP, Baltch AL, Gates SA, Wu DH, Hammer MC, et al. The effect of diabetes mellitus on chemotactic and bactericidal activity of human polymorphonuclear leukocytes. Diabetes Res Clin Pract. 1987;4(1):27–35.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  51. Wong SL, Demers M, Martinod K, Gallant M, Wang Y, Goldfine AB, et al. Diabetes primes neutrophils to undergo NETosis, which impairs wound healing. Nat Med. 2015;21(7):815–9.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  52. Graves DT, Liu R, Oates TW. Diabetes-enhanced inflammation and apoptosis: impact on periodontal pathosis. Periodontol 2000. 2007;45:128–37.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  53. Pacios S, Kang J, Galicia J, Gluck K, Patel H, Ovaydi-Mandel A, et al. Diabetes aggravates periodontitis by limiting repair through enhanced inflammation. FASEB J. 2012;26(4):1423–30.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  54. Preshaw P. Periodontal pathogenesis. In: Newman M, Takei H, Klokkevold P, Carranza F, editors. Carranza’s clinical periodontology. St. Louis: Elsevier Saunders; 2015.

    Google Scholar 

  55. Delamaire M, Maugendre D, Moreno M, Le Goff MC, Allannic H, Genetet B. Impaired leucocyte functions in diabetic patients. Diabet Med. 1997;14(1):29–34.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  56. Golub LM, Nicoll GA, Iacono VJ, Ramamurthy NS. In vivo crevicular leukocyte response to a chemotactic challenge: inhibition by experimental diabetes. Infect Immun. 1982;37(3):1013–20.

    CAS  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  57. Lalla E, Lamster IB, Feit M, Huang L, Spessot A, Qu W, et al. Blockade of RAGE suppresses periodontitis-associated bone loss in diabetic mice. J Clin Invest. 2000;105(8):1117–24.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  58. Pacios S, Andriankaja O, Kang J, Alnammary M, Bae J, de Brito Bezerra B, et al. Bacterial infection increases periodontal bone loss in diabetic rats through enhanced apoptosis. Am J Pathol. 2013;183(6):1928–35.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  59. Gyurko R, Siqueira CC, Caldon N, Gao L, Kantarci A, Van Dyke TE. Chronic hyperglycemia predisposes to exaggerated inflammatory response and leukocyte dysfunction in Akita mice. J Immunol. 2006;177(10):7250–6.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  60. Silva JA, Lopes Ferrucci D, Peroni LA, de Paula IE, Rossa-Junior C, Carvalho HF, et al. Periodontal disease-associated compensatory expression of osteoprotegerin is lost in type 1 diabetes mellitus and correlates with alveolar bone destruction by regulating osteoclastogenesis. Cells Tissues Organs. 2012;196(2):137–50.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  61. Liu R, Bal HS, Desta T, Krothapalli N, Alyassi M, Luan Q, et al. Diabetes enhances periodontal bone loss through enhanced resorption and diminished bone formation. J Dent Res. 2006;85(6):510–4.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  62. Kang J, de Brito Bezerra B, Pacios S, Andriankaja O, Li Y, Tsiagbe V, et al. Aggregatibacter actinomycetemcomitans infection enhances apoptosis in vivo through a caspase-3-dependent mechanism in experimental periodontitis. Infect Immun. 2012;80(6):2247–56.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  63. Taylor G, Graves D, Lamster I. Periodontal disease as a complication of diabetes mellitus. In: Lamster I, editor. Diabetes mellitus and oral health: an interprofessional approach. Ames: Wiley Blackwell; 2014. p. 130–1.

    Google Scholar 

  64. Murillo J, Wang Y, Xu X, Klebe RJ, Chen Z, Zardeneta G, et al. Advanced glycation of type I collagen and fibronectin modifies periodontal cell behavior. J Periodontol. 2008;79(11):2190–9.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  65. Ren L, Fu Y, Deng Y, Qi L, Jin L. Advanced glycation end products inhibit the expression of collagens type I and III by human gingival fibroblasts. J Periodontol. 2009;80(7):1166–73.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  66. Alikhani M, Alikhani Z, Graves DT. FOXO1 functions as a master switch that regulates gene expression necessary for tumor necrosis factor-induced fibroblast apoptosis. J Biol Chem. 2005;280(13):12096–102.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  67. Zambon JJ, Reynolds H, Fisher JG, Shlossman M, Dunford R, Genco RJ. Microbiological and immunological studies of adult periodontitis in patients with noninsulin-dependent diabetes mellitus. J Periodontol. 1988;59(1):23–31.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  68. Sbordone L, Ramaglia L, Barone A, Ciaglia RN, Iacono VJ. Periodontal status and subgingival microbiota of insulin-dependent juvenile diabetics: a 3-year longitudinal study. J Periodontol. 1998;69(2):120–8.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  69. Casarin RC, Barbagallo A, Meulman T, Santos VR, Sallum EA, Nociti FH, et al. Subgingival biodiversity in subjects with uncontrolled type-2 diabetes and chronic periodontitis. J Periodontal Res. 2013;48(1):30–6.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  70. Ebersole JL, Holt SC, Hansard R, Novak MJ. Microbiologic and immunologic characteristics of periodontal disease in Hispanic americans with type 2 diabetes. J Periodontol. 2008;79(4):637–46.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  71. Demmer RT, Desvarieux M, Holtfreter B, Jacobs DR, Wallaschofski H, Nauck M, et al. Periodontal status and A1C change: longitudinal results from the study of health in Pomerania (SHIP). Diabetes Care. 2010;33(5):1037–43.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  72. Janket SJ, Wightman A, Baird AE, Van Dyke TE, Jones JA. Does periodontal treatment improve glycemic control in diabetic patients? A meta-analysis of intervention studies. J Dent Res. 2005;84(12):1154–9.

    Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  73. Darré L, Vergnes JN, Gourdy P, Sixou M. Efficacy of periodontal treatment on glycaemic control in diabetic patients: a meta-analysis of interventional studies. Diabetes Metab. 2008;34(5):497–506.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  74. Simpson TC, Needleman I, Wild SH, Moles DR, Mills EJ. Treatment of periodontal disease for glycaemic control in people with diabetes. Cochrane Database Syst Rev. 2010;5, CD004714.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  75. Teeuw WJ, Gerdes VE, Loos BG. Effect of periodontal treatment on glycemic control of diabetic patients: a systematic review and meta-analysis. Diabetes Care. 2010;33(2):421–7.

    Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  76. Engebretson S, Kocher T. Evidence that periodontal treatment improves diabetes outcomes: a systematic review and meta-analysis. J Periodontol. 2013;84 Suppl 4:S153–69.

    PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  77. Wang X, Han X, Guo X, Luo X, Wang D. The effect of periodontal treatment on hemoglobin a1c levels of diabetic patients: a systematic review and meta-analysis. PLoS One. 2014;9(9), e108412.

    Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  CAS  Google Scholar 

  78. Simpson TC, Weldon JC, Worthington HV, Needleman I, Wild SH, Moles DR, et al. Treatment of periodontal disease for glycaemic control in people with diabetes mellitus. Cochrane Database Syst Rev. 2015;11, CD004714.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  79. Corbella S, Francetti L, Taschieri S, De Siena F, Fabbro MD. Effect of periodontal treatment on glycemic control of patients with diabetes: a systematic review and meta-analysis. J Diabetes Investig. 2013;4(5):502–9.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  80. Wolf D, Lalla E. The influence of periodontal disease on glycemic control in diabetes. In: Lamster I, editor. Diabetes mellitus and oral health: an interprofessional approach. Ames: Wiley Blackwell; 2014.

    Google Scholar 

  81. Engebretson SP, Hyman LG, Michalowicz BS, Schoenfeld ER, Gelato MC, Hou W, et al. The effect of nonsurgical periodontal therapy on hemoglobin A1c levels in persons with type 2 diabetes and chronic periodontitis: a randomized clinical trial. JAMA. 2013;310(23):2523–32.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  82. Islam SA, Seo M, Lee YS, Moon SS. Association of periodontitis with insulin resistance, β-cell function, and impaired fasting glucose before onset of diabetes. Endocr J. 2015;62:981–9.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  83. Demmer RT, Jacobs DR, Desvarieux M. Periodontal disease and incident type 2 diabetes: results from the First National Health and Nutrition Examination Survey and its epidemiologic follow-up study. Diabetes Care. 2008;31(7):1373–9.

    Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  84. Chiu SY, Lai H, Yen AM, Fann JC, Chen LS, Chen HH. Temporal sequence of the bidirectional relationship between hyperglycemia and periodontal disease: a community-based study of 5,885 Taiwanese aged 35–44 years (KCIS No. 32). Acta Diabetol. 2015;52(1):123–31.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  85. Morita I, Inagaki K, Nakamura F, Noguchi T, Matsubara T, Yoshii S, et al. Relationship between periodontal status and levels of glycated hemoglobin. J Dent Res. 2012;91(2):161–6.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  86. Ide R, Hoshuyama T, Wilson D, Takahashi K, Higashi T. Periodontal disease and incident diabetes: a seven-year study. J Dent Res. 2011;90(1):41–6.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  87. Saito T, Shimazaki Y, Kiyohara Y, Kato I, Kubo M, Iida M, et al. The severity of periodontal disease is associated with the development of glucose intolerance in non-diabetics: the Hisayama study. J Dent Res. 2004;83(6):485–90.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  88. Alberti G, Zimmet P, Shaw J, Grundy S. Metabolic Syndrome: The IDF consensus worldwide definition of Metabolic Syndrome. In: Federation ID, editor. Brussels: IDF Communications; 2006. p. 1–24. http://www.idf.org/webdata/docs/IDF_Meta_def_final.pdf

  89. Morita T, Yamazaki Y, Mita A, Takada K, Seto M, Nishinoue N, et al. A cohort study on the association between periodontal disease and the development of metabolic syndrome. J Periodontol. 2010;81(4):512–9.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  90. Heitz-Mayfield LJ. Disease progression: identification of high-risk groups and individuals for periodontitis. J Clin Periodontol. 2005;32 Suppl 6:196–209.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  91. Research, Science and Therapy Committee of the American Academy of Periodontology. Position paper: tobacco use and the periodontal patient. J Periodontol. 1999;70(11):1419–27.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  92. Orbak R, Tezel A, Canakçi V, Demir T. The influence of smoking and non-insulin-dependent diabetes mellitus on periodontal disease. J Int Med Res. 2002;30(2):116–25.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  93. Grossi SG, Skrepcinski FB, DeCaro T, Zambon JJ, Cummins D, Genco RJ. Response to periodontal therapy in diabetics and smokers. J Periodontol. 1996;67 Suppl 10:1094–102.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  94. Preshaw PM, Heasman L, Stacey F, Steen N, McCracken GI, Heasman PA. The effect of quitting smoking on chronic periodontitis. J Clin Periodontol. 2005;32(8):869–79.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  95. Preshaw P, Chambrone L, K N. Smoking and periodontal disease. In: Newman M, Takei H, Klokkevold P, Carranza F, editors. Carranza’s clinical periodontology. 12th ed. St. Louis: Elsevier Saunders; 2015. p. 1 online resource (xix, 818, 136 pages).

    Google Scholar 

  96. Rosa EF, Corraini P, de Carvalho VF, Inoue G, Gomes EF, Lotufo JP, et al. A prospective 12-month study of the effect of smoking cessation on periodontal clinical parameters. J Clin Periodontol. 2011;38(6):562–71.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  97. Ide R, Hoshuyama T, Takahashi K. The effect of periodontal disease on medical and dental costs in a middle-aged Japanese population: a longitudinal worksite study. J Periodontol. 2007;78(11):2120–6.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  98. Saremi A, Nelson RG, Tulloch-Reid M, Hanson RL, Sievers ML, Taylor GW, et al. Periodontal disease and mortality in type 2 diabetes. Diabetes Care. 2005;28(1):27–32.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  99. Shultis WA, Weil EJ, Looker HC, Curtis JM, Shlossman M, Genco RJ, et al. Effect of periodontitis on overt nephropathy and end-stage renal disease in type 2 diabetes. Diabetes Care. 2007;30(2):306–11.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  100. Varon FN. Effect of periodontitis on overt nephropathy and end-stage renal disease in type 2 diabetes: response to Shultis et al. Diabetes Care. 2007;30(12), e138; author reply e9.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  101. Thorstensson H, Kuylenstierna J, Hugoson A. Medical status and complications in relation to periodontal disease experience in insulin-dependent diabetics. J Clin Periodontol. 1996;23(3 Pt 1):194–202.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  102. Banthia R, Raje S, Banthia P, Saral SK, Singh P, Gupta S. Evaluation of the association between periodontal disease and diabetic retinopathy. Gen Dent. 2014;62(6):e28–32.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  103. Noma H, Sakamoto I, Mochizuki H, Tsukamoto H, Minamoto A, Funatsu H, et al. Relationship between periodontal disease and diabetic retinopathy. Diabetes Care. 2004;27(2):615.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  104. Borgnakke WS, Anderson PF, Shannon C, Jivanescu A. Is there a relationship between oral health and diabetic neuropathy? Curr Diab Rep. 2015;15(11):93.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  105. Abrao L, Chagas JK, Schmid H. Periodontal disease and risk for neuropathic foot ulceration in type 2 diabetes. Diabetes Res Clin Pract. 2010;90(1):34–9.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  106. Figuero E, Carrillo-de-Albornoz A, Martín C, Tobías A, Herrera D. Effect of pregnancy on gingival inflammation in systemically healthy women: a systematic review. J Clin Periodontol. 2013;40(5):457–73.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  107. Wu M, Chen SW, Jiang SY. Relationship between gingival inflammation and pregnancy. Mediators Inflamm. 2015;2015:623427.

    PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  108. Mealey BL, Moritz AJ. Hormonal influences: effects of diabetes mellitus and endogenous female sex steroid hormones on the periodontium. Periodontol 2000. 2003;32:59–81.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  109. Silk H, Douglass AB, Douglass JM, Silk L. Oral health during pregnancy. Am Fam Physician. 2008;77(8):1139–44.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  110. Sills ES, Zegarelli DJ, Hoschander MM, Strider WE. Clinical diagnosis and management of hormonally responsive oral pregnancy tumor (pyogenic granuloma). J Reprod Med. 1996;41(7):467–70.

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  111. Offenbacher S, Katz V, Fertik G, Collins J, Boyd D, Maynor G, et al. Periodontal infection as a possible risk factor for preterm low birth weight. J Periodontol. 1996;67 Suppl 10:1103–13.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  112. Sanz M, Kornman K, workshop WgojEA. Periodontitis and adverse pregnancy outcomes: consensus report of the Joint EFP/AAP Workshop on Periodontitis and Systemic Diseases. J Clin Periodontol. 2013;40 Suppl 14:S164–9.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  113. Buduneli N, Baylas H, Buduneli E, Türkoğlu O, Köse T, Dahlen G. Periodontal infections and pre-term low birth weight: a case–control study. J Clin Periodontol. 2005;32(2):174–81.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  114. Bansal M, Khatri M, Kumar A, Bhatia G. Relationship between maternal periodontal status and preterm low birth weight. Rev Obstet Gynecol. 2013;6(3–4):135–40.

    PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  115. Boggess KA, Lieff S, Murtha AP, Moss K, Beck J, Offenbacher S. Maternal periodontal disease is associated with an increased risk for preeclampsia. Obstet Gynecol. 2003;101(2):227–31.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  116. Surdacka A, Ciężka E, Pioruńska-Stolzmann M, Wender-Ożegowska E, Korybalska K, Kawka E, et al. Relation of salivary antioxidant status and cytokine levels to clinical parameters of oral health in pregnant women with diabetes. Arch Oral Biol. 2011;56(5):428–36.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  117. Novak KF, Taylor GW, Dawson DR, Ferguson JE, Novak MJ. Periodontitis and gestational diabetes mellitus: exploring the link in NHANES III. J Public Health Dent. 2006;66(3):163–8.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  118. Xiong X, Buekens P, Vastardis S, Pridjian G. Periodontal disease and gestational diabetes mellitus. Am J Obstet Gynecol. 2006;195(4):1086–9.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  119. Xiong X, Elkind-Hirsch KE, Vastardis S, Delarosa RL, Pridjian G, Buekens P. Periodontal disease is associated with gestational diabetes mellitus: a case-control study. J Periodontol. 2009;80(11):1742–9.

    Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  120. Chokwiriyachit A, Dasanayake AP, Suwannarong W, Hormdee D, Sumanonta G, Prasertchareonsuk W, et al. Periodontitis and gestational diabetes mellitus in non-smoking females. J Periodontol. 2013;84(7):857–62.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  121. Gogeneni H, Buduneli N, Ceyhan-Öztürk B, Gümüş P, Akcali A, Zeller I, et al. Increased infection with key periodontal pathogens during gestational diabetes mellitus. J Clin Periodontol. 2015;42(6):506–12.

    Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  122. Dasanayake AP, Chhun N, Tanner AC, Craig RG, Lee MJ, Moore AF, et al. Periodontal pathogens and gestational diabetes mellitus. J Dent Res. 2008;87(4):328–33.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  123. Esteves Lima RP, Miranda Cota LO, Costa FO. Association between periodontitis and gestational diabetes mellitus: a case-control study. J Periodontol. 2013;84(9):1257–65.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  124. Esteves Lima RP, Cyrino RM, de Carvalho Dutra B, Oliveira da Silveira J, Martins CC, Miranda Cota LO, et al. Association between periodontitis and gestational diabetes mellitus: systematic review and meta-analysis. J Periodontol. 2016;87(1):48–57.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  125. Xie Y, Xiong X, Elkind-Hirsch KE, Pridjian G, Maney P, Delarosa RL, et al. Prepregnancy obesity and periodontitis among pregnant females with and without gestational diabetes mellitus. J Periodontol. 2014;85(7):890–8.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  126. Michalowicz BS, Hodges JS, DiAngelis AJ, Lupo VR, Novak MJ, Ferguson JE, et al. Treatment of periodontal disease and the risk of preterm birth. N Engl J Med. 2006;355(18):1885–94.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  127. Hujoel PP, Lydon-Rochelle M, Robertson PB, del Aguila MA. Cessation of periodontal care during pregnancy: effect on infant birthweight. Eur J Oral Sci. 2006;114(1):2–7.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  128. Amerongen AV, Veerman EC. Saliva – the defender of the oral cavity. Oral Dis. 2002;8(1):12–22.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  129. Gråhn E, Tenovuo J, Lehtonen OP, Eerola E, Vilja P. Antimicrobial systems of human whole saliva in relation to dental caries, cariogenic bacteria, and gingival inflammation in young adults. Acta Odontol Scand. 1988;46(2):67–74.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  130. Pedersen AM, Bardow A, Jensen SB, Nauntofte B. Saliva and gastrointestinal functions of taste, mastication, swallowing and digestion. Oral Dis. 2002;8(3):117–29.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  131. Fox PC, Busch KA, Baum BJ. Subjective reports of xerostomia and objective measures of salivary gland performance. J Am Dent Assoc. 1987;115(4):581–4.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  132. Malicka B, Kaczmarek U, Skośkiewicz-Malinowska K. Prevalence of xerostomia and the salivary flow rate in diabetic patients. Adv Clin Exp Med. 2014;23(2):225–33.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  133. Moore PA, Guggenheimer J, Etzel KR, Weyant RJ, Orchard T. Type 1 diabetes mellitus, xerostomia, and salivary flow rates. Oral Surg Oral Med Oral Pathol Oral Radiol Endod. 2001;92(3):281–91.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  134. Mata AD, Marques D, Rocha S, Francisco H, Santos C, Mesquita MF, et al. Effects of diabetes mellitus on salivary secretion and its composition in the human. Mol Cell Biochem. 2004;261(1–2):137–42.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  135. Carda C, Carranza M, Arriaga A, Díaz A, Peydró A, Gomez de Ferraris ME. Structural differences between alcoholic and diabetic parotid sialosis. Med Oral Patol Oral Cir Bucal. 2005;10(4):309–14.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  136. Chavez EM, Taylor GW, Borrell LN, Ship JA. Salivary function and glycemic control in older persons with diabetes. Oral Surg Oral Med Oral Pathol Oral Radiol Endod. 2000;89(3):305–11.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  137. Scully C. Drug effects on salivary glands: dry mouth. Oral Dis. 2003;9(4):165–76.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  138. Aliko A, Wolff A, Dawes C, Aframian D, Proctor G, Ekström J, et al. World workshop on oral medicine VI: clinical implications of medication-induced salivary gland dysfunction. Oral Surg Oral Med Oral Pathol Oral Radiol. 2015;120(2):185–206.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  139. Lm S. Drugs, dry mouth, and dentistry. In: Sreebny L, Vissink A, editors. Dry mouth, the malevolent symptom: a clinical guide. Ames: Wiley Blackwell; 2010. p. 89–191.

    Google Scholar 

  140. Mandel L, Hamele-Bena D. Alcoholic parotid sialadenosis. J Am Dent Assoc. 1997;128(10):1411–5.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  141. Chilla R. Sialadenosis of the salivary glands of the head. Studies on the physiology and pathophysiology of parotid secretion. Adv Otorhinolaryngol. 1981;26:1–38.

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  142. Donath K, Seifert G. Ultrastructural studies of the parotid glands in sialadenosis. Virchows Arch A Pathol Anat Histol. 1975;365(2):119–35.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  143. Mandel L, Patel S. Sialadenosis associated with diabetes mellitus: a case report. J Oral Maxillofac Surg. 2002;60(6):696–8.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  144. Mandel L, Khelemsky R. Asymptomatic bilateral facial swelling. J Am Dent Assoc. 2012;143(11):1205–8.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  145. Ihrler S, Rath C, Zengel P, Kirchner T, Harrison JD, Weiler C. Pathogenesis of sialadenosis: possible role of functionally deficient myoepithelial cells. Oral Surg Oral Med Oral Pathol Oral Radiol Endod. 2010;110(2):218–23.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  146. Russotto SB. Asymptomatic parotid gland enlargement in diabetes mellitus. Oral Surg Oral Med Oral Pathol. 1981;52(6):594–8.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  147. Scully C, Bagán JV, Eveson JW, Barnard N, Turner FM. Sialosis: 35 cases of persistent parotid swelling from two countries. Br J Oral Maxillofac Surg. 2008;46(6):468–72.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  148. Lilliu MA, Solinas P, Cossu M, Puxeddu R, Loy F, Isola R, et al. Diabetes causes morphological changes in human submandibular gland: a morphometric study. J Oral Pathol Med. 2015;44(4):291–5.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  149. Lilliu MA, Loy F, Cossu M, Solinas P, Isola R, Isola M. Morphometric study of diabetes related alterations in human parotid gland and comparison with submandibular gland. Anat Rec (Hoboken). 2015;298(11):1911–8.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  150. Merlo C, Bohl L, Carda C, Gómez de Ferraris ME, Carranza M. Parotid sialosis: morphometrical analysis of the glandular parenchyme and stroma among diabetic and alcoholic patients. J Oral Pathol Med. 2010;39(1):10–5.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  151. Yakubov Y, Mandel L. Bilateral parotid swelling in polycystic ovarian syndrome. J Oral Maxillofac Surg. 2016;74(5):991–4. doi:10.1016/j.joms.2015.10.026.

    Google Scholar 

  152. Fox PC. Autoimmune diseases and Sjogren’s syndrome: an autoimmune exocrinopathy. Ann N Y Acad Sci. 2007;1098:15–21.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  153. Dodds MW, Johnson DA, Yeh CK. Health benefits of saliva: a review. J Dent. 2005;33(3):223–33.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  154. Carneiro VL, Fraiz FC, Ferreira FM, Pintarelli TP, Oliveira AC, Boguszewski MC. The influence of glycemic control on the oral health of children and adolescents with diabetes mellitus type 1. Arch Endocrinol Metab. 2015;59(6):535–40.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  155. Rai K, Hegde AM, Kamath A, Shetty S. Dental caries and salivary alterations in Type I diabetes. J Clin Pediatr Dent. 2011;36(2):181–4.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  156. Siudikiene J, Machiulskiene V, Nyvad B, Tenovuo J, Nedzelskiene I. Dental caries and salivary status in children with type 1 diabetes mellitus, related to the metabolic control of the disease. Eur J Oral Sci. 2006;114(1):8–14.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  157. Gupta VK, Malhotra S, Sharma V, Hiremath SS. The influence of insulin dependent diabetes mellitus on dental caries and salivary flow. Int J Chronic Dis. 2014;2014:790898.

    CAS  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  158. Busato IM, Ignácio SA, Brancher JA, Moysés ST, Azevedo-Alanis LR. Impact of clinical status and salivary conditions on xerostomia and oral health-related quality of life of adolescents with type 1 diabetes mellitus. Community Dent Oral Epidemiol. 2012;40(1):62–9.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  159. Vasconcelos AC, Soares MS, Almeida PC, Soares TC. Comparative study of the concentration of salivary and blood glucose in type 2 diabetic patients. J Oral Sci. 2010;52(2):293–8.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  160. Jawed M, Khan RN, Shahid SM, Azhar A. Protective effects of salivary factors in dental caries in diabetic patients of Pakistan. Exp Diabetes Res. 2012;2012:947304.

    Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  CAS  Google Scholar 

  161. Kogawa EM, Grisi DC, Falcão DP, Amorim IA, Rezende TM, da Silva IC, et al. Salivary function impairment in type 2 Diabetes patients associated with concentration and genetic polymorphisms of chromogranin A. Clin Oral Investig. 2016;1–13. [Epub ahead of print]. PMID: 26750135.

    Google Scholar 

  162. Montaldo L, Montaldo P, Papa A, Caramico N, Toro G. Effects of saliva substitutes on oral status in patients with type 2 diabetes. Diabet Med. 2010;27(11):1280–3.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  163. Dodds MW, Yeh CK, Johnson DA. Salivary alterations in type 2 (non-insulin-dependent) diabetes mellitus and hypertension. Community Dent Oral Epidemiol. 2000;28(5):373–81.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  164. Lasisi TJ, Fasanmade AA. Comparative analysis of salivary glucose and electrolytes in diabetic individuals with periodontitis. Ann Ib Postgrad Med. 2012;10(1):25–30.

    CAS  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  165. Malicka B, Kaczmarek U, Skośkiewicz-Malinowska K. Selected antibacterial factors in the saliva of diabetic patients. Arch Oral Biol. 2015;60(3):425–31.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  166. Meurman JH, Collin HL, Niskanen L, Töyry J, Alakuijala P, Keinänen S, et al. Saliva in non-insulin-dependent diabetic patients and control subjects: the role of the autonomic nervous system. Oral Surg Oral Med Oral Pathol Oral Radiol Endod. 1998;86(1):69–76.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  167. Mascarenhas P, Fatela B, Barahona I. Effect of diabetes mellitus type 2 on salivary glucose – a systematic review and meta-analysis of observational studies. PLoS One. 2014;9(7), e101706.

    Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  CAS  Google Scholar 

  168. Mussavira S, Dharmalingam M, Omana Sukumaran B. Salivary glucose and antioxidant defense markers in type II diabetes mellitus. Turk J Med Sci. 2015;45(1):141–7.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  169. Twetman S, Johansson I, Birkhed D, Nederfors T. Caries incidence in young type 1 diabetes mellitus patients in relation to metabolic control and caries-associated risk factors. Caries Res. 2002;36(1):31–5.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  170. Barnes VM, Kennedy AD, Panagakos F, Devizio W, Trivedi HM, Jönsson T, et al. Global metabolomic analysis of human saliva and plasma from healthy and diabetic subjects, with and without periodontal disease. PLoS One. 2014;9(8), e105181.

    Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  CAS  Google Scholar 

  171. Twetman S, Nederfors T, Stahl B, Aronson S. Two-year longitudinal observations of salivary status and dental caries in children with insulin-dependent diabetes mellitus. Pediatr Dent. 1992;14(3):184–8.

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  172. Karjalainen KM, Knuuttila ML, Käär ML. Relationship between caries and level of metabolic balance in children and adolescents with insulin-dependent diabetes mellitus. Caries Res. 1997;31(1):13–8.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  173. Carda C, Mosquera-Lloreda N, Salom L, Gomez de Ferraris ME, Peydró A. Structural and functional salivary disorders in type 2 diabetic patients. Med Oral Patol Oral Cir Bucal. 2006;11(4):E309–14.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  174. Collin HL, Sorsa T, Meurman JH, Niskanen L, Salo T, Rönkä H, et al. Salivary matrix metalloproteinase (MMP-8) levels and gelatinase (MMP-9) activities in patients with type 2 diabetes mellitus. J Periodontal Res. 2000;35(5):259–65.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  175. Lamster I. Non-periodontal oral complications of diabetes mellitus. In: Lamster I, editor. Diabetes mellitus and oral health: an interprofessional approach. Ames: Wiley Blackwell; 2014. p. 162.

    Google Scholar 

  176. Rao PV, Reddy AP, Lu X, Dasari S, Krishnaprasad A, Biggs E, et al. Proteomic identification of salivary biomarkers of type-2 diabetes. J Proteome Res. 2009;8(1):239–45.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  177. Border MB, Schwartz S, Carlson J, Dibble CF, Kohltfarber H, Offenbacher S, et al. Exploring salivary proteomes in edentulous patients with type 2 diabetes. Mol Biosyst. 2012;8(4):1304–10.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  178. Dye BA, Thornton-Evans G, Li X, Iafolla TJ. Dental caries and sealant prevalence in children and adolescents in the United States, 2011–2012. NCHS Data Brief. 2015;191:1–8. http://www.cdc.gov/nchs/products/databriefs/db191.htm.

  179. National Center for Health Statistics: Third National Health and Nutrition Survey (NHANES III) reference manuals and reports. Hyattsville: NCHS, U.S. Department of Health and Human Services, Public Health Service, Centers for Disease Control and Prevention; 1996.

    Google Scholar 

  180. Featherstone JD. Dental caries: a dynamic disease process. Aust Dent J. 2008;53(3):286–91.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  181. Moynihan PJ, Kelly SA. Effect on caries of restricting sugars intake: systematic review to inform WHO guidelines. J Dent Res. 2014;93(1):8–18.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  182. Novotna M, Podzimek S, Broukal Z, Lencova E, Duskova J. Periodontal diseases and dental caries in children with type 1 diabetes mellitus. Mediators Inflamm. 2015;2015:379626.

    Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  183. Ismail AF, McGrath CP, Yiu CK. Oral health of children with type 1 diabetes mellitus: a systematic review. Diabetes Res Clin Pract. 2015;108(3):369–81.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  184. Garton BJ, Ford PJ. Root caries and diabetes: risk assessing to improve oral and systemic health outcomes. Aust Dent J. 2012;57(2):114–22.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  185. Miralles L, Silvestre FJ, Hernández-Mijares A, Bautista D, Llambes F, Grau D. Dental caries in type 1 diabetics: influence of systemic factors of the disease upon the development of dental caries. Med Oral Patol Oral Cir Bucal. 2006;11(3):E256–60.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  186. Miko S, Ambrus SJ, Sahafian S, Dinya E, Tamas G, Albrecht MG. Dental caries and adolescents with type 1 diabetes. Br Dent J. 2010;208(6), E12.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  187. Edblad E, Lundin SA, Sjödin B, Aman J. Caries and salivary status in young adults with type 1 diabetes. Swed Dent J. 2001;25(2):53–60.

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  188. Jones RB, McCallum RM, Kay EJ, Kirkin V, McDonald P. Oral health and oral health behaviour in a population of diabetic outpatient clinic attenders. Community Dent Oral Epidemiol. 1992;20(4):204–7.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  189. Lalla E, Cheng B, Lal S, Tucker S, Greenberg E, Goland R, et al. Periodontal changes in children and adolescents with diabetes: a case-control study. Diabetes Care. 2006;29(2):295–9.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  190. Arrieta-Blanco JJ, Bartolomé-Villar B, Jiménez-Martinez E, Saavedra-Vallejo P, Arrieta-Blanco FJ. Bucco-dental problems in patients with diabetes mellitus (I): index of plaque and dental caries. Med Oral. 2003;8(2):97–109.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  191. Orbak R, Simsek S, Orbak Z, Kavrut F, Colak M. The influence of type-1 diabetes mellitus on dentition and oral health in children and adolescents. Yonsei Med J. 2008;49(3):357–65.

    Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  192. Tagelsir A, Cauwels R, van Aken S, Vanobbergen J, Martens LC. Dental caries and dental care level (restorative index) in children with diabetes mellitus type 1. Int J Pediatr Dent. 2011;21(1):13–22.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  193. Siudikiene J, Maciulskiene V, Nedzelskiene I. Dietary and oral hygiene habits in children with type I diabetes mellitus related to dental caries. Stomatologija. 2005;7(2):58–62.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  194. Bolgül BS, Celenk S, Ayna BE, Atakul F, Uysal E. Evaluation of caries risk factors and effects of a fluoride-releasing adhesive material in children with insulin-dependent diabetes mellitus (IDDM): initial first-year results. Acta Odontol Scand. 2004;62(5):289–92.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  195. Saes Busato IM, Bittencourt MS, Machado MA, Grégio AM, Azevedo-Alanis LR. Association between metabolic control and oral health in adolescents with type 1 diabetes mellitus. Oral Surg Oral Med Oral Pathol Oral Radiol Endod. 2010;109(3):e51–6.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  196. Syrjälä AM, Niskanen MC, Ylöstalo P, Knuuttila ML. Metabolic control as a modifier of the association between salivary factors and dental caries among diabetic patients. Caries Res. 2003;37(2):142–7.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  197. Moore PA, Weyant RJ, Etzel KR, Guggenheimer J, Mongelluzzo MB, Myers DE, et al. Type 1 diabetes mellitus and oral health: assessment of coronal and root caries. Community Dent Oral Epidemiol. 2001;29(3):183–94.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  198. Lamster I. Non-periodontal oral complications of diabetes mellitus. In: Lamster I, editor. Diabetes mellitus and oral health: an interprofessional approach. Ames: Wiley Blackwell; 2014.

    Chapter  Google Scholar 

  199. Hintao J, Teanpaisan R, Chongsuvivatwong V, Dahlen G, Rattarasarn C. Root surface and coronal caries in adults with type 2 diabetes mellitus. Community Dent Oral Epidemiol. 2007;35(4):302–9.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  200. Lin BP, Taylor GW, Allen DJ, Ship JA. Dental caries in older adults with diabetes mellitus. Spec Care Dentist. 1999;19(1):8–14.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  201. Collin HL, Uusitupa M, Niskanen L, Koivisto AM, Markkanen H, Meurman JH. Caries in patients with non-insulin-dependent diabetes mellitus. Oral Surg Oral Med Oral Pathol Oral Radiol Endod. 1998;85(6):680–5.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  202. Närhi TO, Meurman JH, Odont D, Ainamo A, Tilvis R. Oral health in the elderly with non-insulin-dependent diabetes mellitus. Spec Care Dentist. 1996;16(3):116–22.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  203. Tavares M, Depaola P, Soparkar P, Joshipura K. The prevalence of root caries in a diabetic population. J Dent Res. 1991;70(6):979–83.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  204. Cherry-Peppers G, Ship JA. Oral health in patients with type II diabetes and impaired glucose tolerance. Diabetes Care. 1993;16(4):638–41.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  205. Guggenheimer J, Moore PA, Rossie K, Myers D, Mongelluzzo MB, Block HM, et al. Insulin-dependent diabetes mellitus and oral soft tissue pathologies: II. Prevalence and characteristics of Candida and candidal lesions. Oral Surg Oral Med Oral Pathol Oral Radiol Endod. 2000;89(5):570–6.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  206. Albrecht M, Bánóczy J, Dinya E, Tamás G. Occurrence of oral leukoplakia and lichen planus in diabetes mellitus. J Oral Pathol Med. 1992;21(8):364–6.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  207. Dikshit RP, Ramadas K, Hashibe M, Thomas G, Somanathan T, Sankaranarayanan R. Association between diabetes mellitus and pre-malignant oral diseases: a cross sectional study in Kerala, India. Int J Cancer. 2006;118(2):453–7.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  208. Ujpál M, Matos O, Bíbok G, Somogyi A, Szabó G, Suba Z. Diabetes and oral tumors in Hungary: epidemiological correlations. Diabetes Care. 2004;27(3):770–4.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  209. Gong Y, Wei B, Yu L, Pan W. Type 2 diabetes mellitus and risk of oral cancer and precancerous lesions: a meta-analysis of observational studies. Oral Oncol. 2015;51(4):332–40.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  210. Tseng KS, Lin C, Lin YS, Weng SF. Risk of head and neck cancer in patients with diabetes mellitus: a retrospective cohort study in Taiwan. JAMA Otolaryngol Head Neck Surg. 2014;140(8):746–53.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  211. Lin CC, Chiang JH, Li CI, Liu CS, Lin WY, Hsieh TF, et al. Cancer risks among patients with type 2 diabetes: a 10-year follow-up study of a nationwide population-based cohort in Taiwan. BMC Cancer. 2014;14:381.

    Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  CAS  Google Scholar 

  212. Geerlings SE, Hoepelman AI. Immune dysfunction in patients with diabetes mellitus (DM). FEMS Immunol Med Microbiol. 1999;26(3–4):259–65.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  213. Negrato CA, Tarzia O. Buccal alterations in diabetes mellitus. Diabetol Metab Syndr. 2010;2:3.

    Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  214. Neville BW. Oral and maxillofacial pathology. 4th ed. St. Louis: Saunders/Elsevier; 2015.

    Google Scholar 

  215. Al-Attas SA, Amro SO. Candidal colonization, strain diversity, and antifungal susceptibility among adult diabetic patients. Ann Saudi Med. 2010;30(2):101–8.

    Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  216. Lotfi-Kamran MH, Jafari AA, Falah-Tafti A, Tavakoli E, Falahzadeh MH. Candida colonization on the denture of diabetic and non-diabetic patients. Dent Res J (Isfahan). 2009;6(1):23–7.

    Google Scholar 

  217. Premkumar J, Ramani P, Chandrasekar T, Natesan A, Premkumar P. Detection of species diversity in oral Candida colonization and anti-fungal susceptibility among non-oral habit adult diabetic patients. J Nat Sci Biol Med. 2014;5(1):148–54.

    Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  218. Sanitá PV, Pavarina AC, Giampaolo ET, Silva MM, Mima EG, Ribeiro DG, et al. Candida spp. prevalence in well controlled type 2 diabetic patients with denture stomatitis. Oral Surg Oral Med Oral Pathol Oral Radiol Endod. 2011;111(6):726–33.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  219. Kalapala L, Raghunath V, Reginald AB. Salivary factors, candidal colonization and strain diversity in type II diabetics. Nat J Lab Med. 2015;4(4):52–8.

    Google Scholar 

  220. Tapper-Jones LM, Aldred MJ, Walker DM, Hayes TM. Candidal infections and populations of Candida albicans in mouths of diabetics. J Clin Pathol. 1981;34(7):706–11.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  221. Kumar BV, Padshetty NS, Bai KY, Rao MS. Prevalence of Candida in the oral cavity of diabetic subjects. J Assoc Physicians India. 2005;53:599–602.

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  222. Bremenkamp RM, Caris AR, Jorge AO, Back-Brito GN, Mota AJ, Balducci I, et al. Prevalence and antifungal resistance profile of Candida spp. oral isolates from patients with type 1 and 2 diabetes mellitus. Arch Oral Biol. 2011;56(6):549–55.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  223. Cavaleiro I, Proença L, Félix S, Salema-Oom M. Prevalence of yeast other than Candida albicans in denture wearers. J Prosthodont. 2013;22(5):351–7.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  224. Zomorodian K, Haghighi NN, Rajaee N, Pakshir K, Tarazooie B, Vojdani M, et al. Assessment of Candida species colonization and denture-related stomatitis in complete denture wearers. Med Mycol. 2011;49(2):208–11.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  225. Dorocka-Bobkowska B, Zozulinska-Ziolkiewicz D, Wierusz-Wysocka B, Hedzelek W, Szumala-Kakol A, Budtz-Jörgensen E. Candida-associated denture stomatitis in type 2 diabetes mellitus. Diabetes Res Clin Pract. 2010;90(1):81–6.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  226. Willis AM, Coulter WA, Fulton CR, Hayes JR, Bell PM, Lamey PJ. Oral candidal carriage and infection in insulin-treated diabetic patients. Diabet Med. 1999;16(8):675–9.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  227. Vasconcelos BC, Novaes M, Sandrini FA, Maranhão Filho AW, Coimbra LS. Prevalence of oral mucosa lesions in diabetic patients: a preliminary study. Braz J Otorhinolaryngol. 2008;74(3):423–8.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  228. Sashikumar R, Kannan R. Salivary glucose levels and oral candidal carriage in type II diabetics. Oral Surg Oral Med Oral Pathol Oral Radiol Endod. 2010;109(5):706–11.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  229. Borgnakke WS. Salivary glucose levels are unable to predict oral candidiasis or monitor diabetes. J Evid Based Dent Pract. 2010;10(4):237–40.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  230. Darwazeh AM, Lamey PJ, Samaranayake LP, MacFarlane TW, Fisher BM, Macrury SM, et al. The relationship between colonisation, secretor status and in-vitro adhesion of Candida albicans to buccal epithelial cells from diabetics. J Med Microbiol. 1990;33(1):43–9.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  231. Samaranayake LP. Host factors and Oral Candidosis. In: Samaranayake LP, MacFarlane TW, editor. Oral Candidosis. London: Wright Butterworth; 1990:66-103.

    Google Scholar 

  232. Hibino K, Samaranayake LP, Hägg U, Wong RW, Lee W. The role of salivary factors in persistent oral carriage of Candida in humans. Arch Oral Biol. 2009;54(7):678–83.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  233. Gandara B, Morton T. Non-periodontal oral manifestations of diabetes: a framework for medical care providers. Diabetes Spectrum. 2011;24:199–205.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  234. Saini R, Al-Maweri SA, Saini D, Ismail NM, Ismail AR. Oral mucosal lesions in non oral habit diabetic patients and association of diabetes mellitus with oral precancerous lesions. Diabetes Res Clin Pract. 2010;89(3):320–6.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  235. Fisher BM, Lamey PJ, Samaranayake LP, MacFarlane TW, Frier BM. Carriage of Candida species in the oral cavity in diabetic patients: relationship to glycaemic control. J Oral Pathol. 1987;16(5):282–4.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  236. Webb BC, Thomas CJ, Willcox MD, Harty DW, Knox KW. Candida-associated denture stomatitis. Aetiology and management: a review. Part 1. Factors influencing distribution of Candida species in the oral cavity. Aust Dent J. 1998;43(1):45–50.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  237. Sahin I, Oksuz S, Sencan I, Gulcan A, Karabay O, Gulcan E, et al. Prevalence and risk factors for yeast colonization in adult diabetic patients. Ethiop Med J. 2005;43(2):103–9.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  238. Aly FZ, Blackwell CC, Mackenzie DA, Weir DM, Clarke BF. Factors influencing oral carriage of yeasts among individuals with diabetes mellitus. Epidemiol Infect. 1992;109(3):507–18.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  239. Chandler PT, Chandler SD. Pathogenic carrier rate in diabetes mellitus. Am J Med Sci. 1977;273(3):259–65.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  240. Hill LV, Tan MH, Pereira LH, Embil JA. Association of oral candidiasis with diabetic control. J Clin Pathol. 1989;42(5):502–5.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  241. Belazi M, Velegraki A, Fleva A, Gidarakou I, Papanaum L, Baka D, et al. Candidal overgrowth in diabetic patients: potential predisposing factors. Mycoses. 2005;48(3):192–6.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  242. Regezi JA, Sciubba JJ, Jordan RCK. Oral pathology: clinical pathologic correlations. St. Louis: Elsevier/Saunders; 2012.

    Google Scholar 

  243. Manfredi M, McCullough MJ, Al-Karaawi ZM, Hurel SJ, Porter SR. The isolation, identification and molecular analysis of Candida spp. isolated from the oral cavities of patients with diabetes mellitus. Oral Microbiol Immunol. 2002;17(3):181–5.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  244. Sullivan DJ, Westerneng TJ, Haynes KA, Bennett DE, Coleman DC. Candida dubliniensis sp. nov.: phenotypic and molecular characterization of a novel species associated with oral candidosis in HIV-infected individuals. Microbiology. 1995;141(Pt 7):1507–21.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  245. Gonçalves RH, Miranda ET, Zaia JE, Giannini MJ. Species diversity of yeast in oral colonization of insulin-treated diabetes mellitus patients. Mycopathologia. 2006;162(2):83–9.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  246. Willis AM, Coulter WA, Sullivan DJ, Coleman DC, Hayes JR, Bell PM, et al. Isolation of C. dubliniensis from insulin-using diabetes mellitus patients. J Oral Pathol Med. 2000;29(2):86–90.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  247. Tekeli A, Dolapci I, Emral R, Cesur S. Candida carriage and Candida dubliniensis in oropharyngeal samples of type-1 diabetes mellitus patients. Mycoses. 2004;47(7):315–8.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  248. Melton JJ, Redding SW, Kirkpatrick WR, Reasner CA, Ocampo GL, Venkatesh A, et al. Recovery of Candida dubliniensis and other Candida species from the oral cavity of subjects with periodontitis who had well-controlled and poorly controlled type 2 diabetes: a pilot study. Spec Care Dentist. 2010;30(6):230–4.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  249. Guggenheimer J, Moore PA, Rossie K, Myers D, Mongelluzzo MB, Block HM, et al. Insulin-dependent diabetes mellitus and oral soft tissue pathologies. I. Prevalence and characteristics of non-candidal lesions. Oral Surg Oral Med Oral Pathol Oral Radiol Endod. 2000;89(5):563–9.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  250. Farman A. Atrophic lesions of the tongue: a prevalence study among 176 diabetic patients. J Oral Pathol. 1976;5:255–64.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  251. Bastos AS, Leite AR, Spin-Neto R, Nassar PO, Massucato EM, Orrico SR. Diabetes mellitus and oral mucosa alterations: prevalence and risk factors. Diabetes Res Clin Pract. 2011;92(1):100–5.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  252. Silva MF, Barbosa KG, Pereira JV, Bento PM, Godoy GP, Gomes DQ. Prevalence of oral mucosal lesions among patients with diabetes mellitus types 1 and 2. An Bras Dermatol. 2015;90(1):49–53.

    Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  253. Al-Hashimi I, Schifter M, Lockhart PB, Wray D, Brennan M, Migliorati CA, et al. Oral lichen planus and oral lichenoid lesions: diagnostic and therapeutic considerations. Oral Surg Oral Med Oral Pathol Oral Radiol Endod. 2007;103(Suppl):S25.e1–12.

    Google Scholar 

  254. Epstein JB, Wan LS, Gorsky M, Zhang L. Oral lichen planus: progress in understanding its malignant potential and the implications for clinical management. Oral Surg Oral Med Oral Pathol Oral Radiol Endod. 2003;96(1):32–7.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  255. Romero MA, Seoane J, Varela-Centelles P, Diz-Dios P, Garcia-Pola MJ. Prevalence of diabetes mellitus amongst oral lichen planus patients. Clinical and pathological characteristics. Med Oral. 2002;7(2):121–9.

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  256. Seyhan M, Ozcan H, Sahin I, Bayram N, Karincaoğlu Y. High prevalence of glucose metabolism disturbance in patients with lichen planus. Diabetes Res Clin Pract. 2007;77(2):198–202.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  257. Borghelli RF, Pettinari IL, Chuchurru JA, Stirparo MA. Oral lichen planus in patients with diabetes. An epidemiologic study. Oral Surg Oral Med Oral Pathol. 1993;75(4):498–500.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  258. Van Dis ML, Parks ET. Prevalence of oral lichen planus in patients with diabetes mellitus. Oral Surg Oral Med Oral Pathol Oral Radiol Endod. 1995;79(6):696–700.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  259. Yuan A, Woo SB. Adverse drug events in the oral cavity. Oral Surg Oral Med Oral Pathol Oral Radiol. 2015;119(1):35–47.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  260. Kaomongkolgit R. Oral lichenoid drug reaction associated with antihypertensive and hypoglycemic drugs. J Drugs Dermatol. 2010;9(1):73–5.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  261. Scully C, Bagan JV. Adverse drug reactions in the orofacial region. Crit Rev Oral Biol Med. 2004;15(4):221–39.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  262. Serrano-Sánchez P, Bagan JV, Jiménez-Soriano, Sarrión G. Drug-induced oral lichenoid reactions. A literature review. J Clin Exp Dent. 2010;2(2):e71–5.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  263. Lamey PJ, Gibson J, Barclay SC, Miller S. Grinspan’s syndrome: a drug-induced phenomenon? Oral Surg Oral Med Oral Pathol. 1990;70:184–5.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  264. Lodi G, Scully C, Carrozzo M, Griffiths M, Sugerman PB, Thongprasom K. Current controversies in oral lichen planus: report of an international consensus meeting. Part 2. Clinical management and malignant transformation. Oral Surg Oral Med Oral Pathol Oral Radiol Endod. 2005;100(2):164–78.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  265. van der Waal I. Potentially malignant disorders of the oral and oropharyngeal mucosa; terminology, classification and present concepts of management. Oral Oncol. 2009;45(4–5):317–23.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  266. Pindborg J, Reichart P, Smith C, van der Waal I. Precancerous conditions. In: Organization WH, editor. Histological typing of cancer and precancer of the oral mucosa. 2nd ed. Berlin: Springer; 1997:1–87.

    Google Scholar 

  267. van der Meij EH, Mast H, van der Waal I. The possible premalignant character of oral lichen planus and oral lichenoid lesions: a prospective five-year follow-up study of 192 patients. Oral Oncol. 2007;43(8):742–8.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  268. Fitzpatrick SG, Hirsch SA, Gordon SC. The malignant transformation of oral lichen planus and oral lichenoid lesions: a systematic review. J Am Dent Assoc. 2014;145(1):45–56.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  269. Gandolfo S, Richiardi L, Carrozzo M, Broccoletti R, Carbone M, Pagano M, et al. Risk of oral squamous cell carcinoma in 402 patients with oral lichen planus: a follow-up study in an Italian population. Oral Oncol. 2004;40(1):77–83.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  270. Silverman S, Gorsky M, Lozada-Nur F. A prospective follow-up study of 570 patients with oral lichen planus: persistence, remission, and malignant association. Oral Surg Oral Med Oral Pathol. 1985;60(1):30–4.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  271. Casparis S, Borm JM, Tektas S, Kamarachev J, Locher MC, Damerau G, et al. Oral lichen planus (OLP), oral lichenoid lesions (OLL), oral dysplasia, and oral cancer: retrospective analysis of clinicopathological data from 2002–2011. Oral Maxillofac Surg. 2015;19(2):149–56.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  272. Eisenberg E. Oral lichen planus: a benign lesion. J Oral Maxillofac Surg. 2000;58(11):1278–85.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  273. Silverman S. Oral lichen planus: a potentially premalignant lesion. J Oral Maxillofac Surg. 2000;58(11):1286–8.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  274. Eisen D. The clinical features, malignant potential, and systemic associations of oral lichen planus: a study of 723 patients. J Am Acad Dermatol. 2002;46(2):207–14.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  275. Mignogna MD, Lo Muzio L, Lo Russo L, Fedele S, Ruoppo E, Bucci E. Clinical guidelines in early detection of oral squamous cell carcinoma arising in oral lichen planus: a 5-year experience. Oral Oncol. 2001;37(3):262–7.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  276. Mattsson U, Jontell M, Holmstrup P. Oral lichen planus and malignant transformation: is a recall of patients justified? Crit Rev Oral Biol Med. 2002;13(5):390–6.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  277. Dost F, Lê Cao KA, Ford PJ, Farah CS. A retrospective analysis of clinical features of oral malignant and potentially malignant disorders with and without oral epithelial dysplasia. Oral Surg Oral Med Oral Pathol Oral Radiol. 2013;116(6):725–33.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  278. Vairaktaris E, Spyridonidou S, Goutzanis L, Vylliotis A, Lazaris A, Donta I, et al. Diabetes and oral oncogenesis. Anticancer Res. 2007;27(6B):4185–93.

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  279. Onitilo AA, Engel JM, Glurich I, Stankowski RV, Williams GM, Doi SA. Diabetes and cancer II: role of diabetes medications and influence of shared risk factors. Cancer Causes Control. 2012;23(7):991–1008.

    Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  280. Gallagher EJ, LeRoith D. Epidemiology and molecular mechanisms tying obesity, diabetes, and the metabolic syndrome with cancer. Diabetes Care. 2013;36 Suppl 2:S233–9.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  281. Liu CJ, Chang WJ, Chen CY, Sun FJ, Cheng HW, Chen TY, et al. Dynamic cellular and molecular modulations of diabetes mediated head and neck carcinogenesis. Oncotarget. 2015;6(30):29268–84.

    PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  282. Dandona P, Thusu K, Cook S, Snyder B, Makowski J, Armstrong D, et al. Oxidative damage to DNA in diabetes mellitus. Lancet. 1996;347(8999):444–5.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  283. Valent F. Diabetes mellitus and cancer of the digestive organs: an Italian population-based cohort study. J Diabet Complications. 2015;29(8):1056–61.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  284. Anantharaman D, Marron M, Lagiou P, Samoli E, Ahrens W, Pohlabeln H, et al. Population attributable risk of tobacco and alcohol for upper aerodigestive tract cancer. Oral Oncol. 2011;47(8):725–31.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  285. Atchison EA, Gridley G, Carreon JD, Leitzmann MF, McGlynn KA. Risk of cancer in a large cohort of U.S. veterans with diabetes. Int J Cancer. 2011;128:635–43.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  286. Landis SH, El-Hariry IA, van Herk-Sukel MP, van den Haak P, Janssen-Heijnen ML, Penning-van Beest FJ, et al. Prevalence and incidence of acute and chronic comorbidity in patients with squamous cell carcinoma of the head and neck. Head Neck. 2012;34(2):238–44.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  287. Wu CH, Wu TY, Li CC, Lui MT, Chang KW, Kao SY. Impact of diabetes mellitus on the prognosis of patients with oral squamous cell carcinoma: a retrospective cohort study. Ann Surg Oncol. 2010;17(8):2175–83.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  288. Surveillance E, and End Results (SEER) Program (www.seer.cancer.gov) SEER*Stat Database: Mortality – All COD, Aggregated With State, Total U.S. (1969–2012) < Katrina/Rita Population Adjustment>, National Cancer Institute, DCCPS, Surveillance Research Program, Surveillance Systems Branch, released April 2015. Underlying mortality data provided by NCHS (www.cdc.gov/nchs).

    Google Scholar 

  289. Warnakulasuriya S, Johnson NW, van der Waal I. Nomenclature and classification of potentially malignant disorders of the oral mucosa. J Oral Pathol Med. 2007;36(10):575–80.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  290. Reichart PA, Philipsen HP. Oral erythroplakia – a review. Oral Oncol. 2005;41(6):551–61.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  291. Scully C, Paes de Almeida O, Bagan J, Diz Dios P, Mosqueda Taylor A. Oral medicine and pathology at a glance. Chichester: Wiley Blackwell; 2014.

    Google Scholar 

  292. Brouns E, Baart J, Karagozoglu K, Aartman I, Bloemena E, van der Waal I. Malignant transformation of oral leukoplakia in a well-defined cohort of 144 patients. Oral Dis. 2014;20(3):e19–24.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  293. Meisel P, Dau M, Sümnig W, Holtfreter B, Houshmand M, Nauck M, et al. Association between glycemia, serum lipoproteins, and the risk of oral leukoplakia: the population-based Study of Health in Pomerania (SHIP). Diabetes Care. 2010;33(6):1230–2.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  294. Moore PA, Guggenheimer J, Orchard T. Burning mouth syndrome and peripheral neuropathy in patients with type 1 diabetes mellitus. J Diabet Complications. 2007;21(6):397–402.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  295. Gibson J, Lamey PJ, Lewis M, Frier B. Oral manifestations of previously undiagnosed non-insulin dependent diabetes mellitus. J Oral Pathol Med. 1990;19(6):284–7.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  296. Arap A, Siqueira SR, Silva CB, Teixeira MJ, Siqueira JT. Trigeminal pain and quantitative sensory testing in painful peripheral diabetic neuropathy. Arch Oral Biol. 2010;55(7):486–93.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  297. Collin HL, Niskanen L, Uusitupa M, Töyry J, Collin P, Koivisto AM, et al. Oral symptoms and signs in elderly patients with type 2 diabetes mellitus. A focus on diabetic neuropathy. Oral Surg Oral Med Oral Pathol Oral Radiol Endod. 2000;90(3):299–305.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  298. Scala A, Checchi L, Montevecchi M, Marini I, Giamberardino MA. Update on burning mouth syndrome: overview and patient management. Crit Rev Oral Biol Med. 2003;14(4):275–91.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  299. Grushka M. Clinical features of burning mouth syndrome. Oral Surg Oral Med Oral Pathol. 1987;63(1):30–6.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  300. Yilmaz Z, Renton T, Yiangou Y, Zakrzewska J, Chessell IP, Bountra C, et al. Burning mouth syndrome as a trigeminal small fibre neuropathy: increased heat and capsaicin receptor TRPV1 in nerve fibres correlates with pain score. J Clin Neurosci. 2007;14(9):864–71.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  301. Jääskeläinen SK. Pathophysiology of primary burning mouth syndrome. Clin Neurophysiol. 2012;123(1):71–7.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  302. Lauria G, Majorana A, Borgna M, Lombardi R, Penza P, Padovani A, et al. Trigeminal small-fiber sensory neuropathy causes burning mouth syndrome. Pain. 2005;115(3):332–7.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  303. Carrington J, Getter L, Brown RS. Diabetic neuropathy masquerading as glossodynia. J Am Dent Assoc. 2001;132(11):1549–51.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  304. Dersh J, Polatin PB, Gatchel RJ. Chronic pain and psychopathology: research findings and theoretical considerations. Psychosom Med. 2002;64(5):773–86.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  305. Zakrzewska JM. Multi-dimensionality of chronic pain of the oral cavity and face. J Headache Pain. 2013;14:37.

    Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  306. Patton LL, Siegel MA, Benoliel R, De Laat A. Management of burning mouth syndrome: systematic review and management recommendations. Oral Surg Oral Med Oral Pathol Oral Radiol Endod. 2007;103(Suppl):S39.e1–13.

    Google Scholar 

  307. Lamey PJ, Freeman R, Eddie SA, Pankhurst C, Rees T. Vulnerability and presenting symptoms in burning mouth syndrome. Oral Surg Oral Med Oral Pathol Oral Radiol Endod. 2005;99(1):48–54.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  308. Carlson CR, Miller CS, Reid KI. Psychosocial profiles of patients with burning mouth syndrome. J Orofac Pain. 2000;14(1):59–64.

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  309. Ali S, Stone MA, Peters JL, Davies MJ, Khunti K. The prevalence of co-morbid depression in adults with type 2 diabetes: a systematic review and meta-analysis. Diabet Med. 2006;23(11):1165–73.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  310. Gendelman N, Snell-Bergeon JK, McFann K, Kinney G, Paul Wadwa R, Bishop F, et al. Prevalence and correlates of depression in individuals with and without type 1 diabetes. Diabetes Care. 2009;32(4):575–9.

    Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  311. Zakrzewska JM, Forssell H, Glenny AM. Interventions for the treatment of burning mouth syndrome. Cochrane Database Syst Rev. 2005; CD002779.

    Google Scholar 

  312. Sumlin LL, Garcia TJ, Brown SA, Winter MA, García AA, Brown A, et al. Depression and adherence to lifestyle changes in type 2 diabetes: a systematic review. Diabetes Educ. 2014;40(6):731–44.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  313. Moussavi S, Chatterji S, Verdes E, Tandon A, Patel V, Ustun B. Depression, chronic diseases, and decrements in health: results from the World Health Surveys. Lancet. 2007;370(9590):851–8.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  314. Lin EH, Von Korff M, Alonso J, Angermeyer MC, Anthony J, Bromet E, et al. Mental disorders among persons with diabetes – results from the World Mental Health Surveys. J Psychosom Res. 2008;65(6):571–80.

    Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  315. Harris MD. Psychosocial aspects of diabetes with an emphasis on depression. Curr Diab Rep. 2003;3(1):49–55.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  316. Smith KJ, Pedneault M, Schmitz N. Investigation of anxiety and depression symptom co-morbidity in a community sample with type 2 diabetes: associations with indicators of self-care. Can J Public Health. 2016;106(8):e496–501.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  317. Sreebny LM, Schwartz SS. A reference guide to drugs and dry mouth – 2nd edition. Gerodontology. 1997;14(1):33–47.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  318. Spangler JG, Konen JC, McGann KP. Prevalence and predictors of problem drinking among primary care diabetic patients. J Fam Pract. 1993;37(4):370–5.

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  319. Engler PA, Ramsey SE, Smith RJ. Alcohol use of diabetes patients: the need for assessment and intervention. Acta Diabetol. 2013;50(2):93–9.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  320. Chew LD, Nelson KM, Young BA, Bradley KA. Association between alcohol consumption and diabetes preventive practices. Fam Med. 2005;37(8):589–94.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  321. Mealey B. Management of the patient with diabetes mellitus in the dental office. In: Lamster I, editor. Diabetes mellitus and oral health: an interprofessional approach. Ames: Wiley Blackwell; 2014. p. 101–4.

    Google Scholar 

  322. Ueta E, Osaki T, Yoneda K, Yamamoto T. Prevalence of diabetes mellitus in odontogenic infections and oral candidiasis: an analysis of neutrophil suppression. J Oral Pathol Med. 1993;22(4):168–74.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  323. Lalla E, Kunzel C, Burkett S, Cheng B, Lamster IB. Identification of unrecognized diabetes and pre-diabetes in a dental setting. J Dent Res. 2011;90(7):855–60.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  324. Nasseh K, Vujicic M, Glick M. The relationship between periodontal interventions and healthcare costs and utilization. Evidence from an integrated dental, medical, and pharmacy commercial claims database. Health Econ. 2016. doi:10.1002/hec.3316. [Epub ahead of print]. PMID: 26799518.

    Google Scholar 

  325. Jeffcoat MK, Jeffcoat RL, Gladowski PA, Bramson JB, Blum JJ. Impact of periodontal therapy on general health: evidence from insurance data for five systemic conditions. Am J Prev Med. 2014;47(2):166–74.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  326. Mosen DM, Pihlstrom DJ, Snyder JJ, Shuster E. Assessing the association between receipt of dental care, diabetes control measures and health care utilization. J Am Dent Assoc. 2012;143(1):20–30.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  327. Cefalu W. American Diabetes Association: standards of medical care in diabetes. J Clin Appl Res Educ. 2015;38:S1–93. http://www.diabetes.teithe.gr/UsersFiles/entypa/STANDARDS%20OF%20MEDICAL%20CARE%20IN%20DIABETES%202015.pdf

  328. PI E, GO T-E, GL B. Dental visits among dentate adults with diabetes – United States, 1999 and 2004. 2005. Report No.: Contract No.: 46.

    Google Scholar 

  329. Macek MD, Taylor GW, Tomar SL. Dental care visits among dentate adults with diabetes, United States, 2003. J Public Health Dent. 2008;68(2):102–10.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  330. Moore PA, Orchard T, Guggenheimer J, Weyant RJ. Diabetes and oral health promotion: a survey of disease prevention behaviors. J Am Dent Assoc. 2000;131(9):1333–41.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  331. Chaudhari M, Hubbard R, Reid RJ, Inge R, Newton KM, Spangler L, et al. Evaluating components of dental care utilization among adults with diabetes and matched controls via hurdle models. BMC Oral Health. 2012;12:20.

    Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  332. Azogui-Lévy S, Dray-Spira R. Sociodemographic factors associated with the dental health of persons with diabetes in France. Spec Care Dentist. 2012;32(4):142–9.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  333. Berwick DM, Nolan TW, Whittington J. The triple aim: care, health, and cost. Health Affairs. 2008;27(3):759–69.

    Google Scholar 

  334. Hummel J, Phillips KE, Holt B, Hayes C. Oral health: an essential component of primary care. Seattle: Qualis Health; 2015.

    Google Scholar 

  335. Lalla E, Lamster IB. Assessment and management of patients with diabetes mellitus in the dental office. Dent Clin North Am. 2012;56(4):819–29.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  336. Elangovan S, Hertzman-Miller R, Karimbux N, Giddon D. A framework for physician-dentist collaboration in diabetes and periodontitis. Clin Diabetes. 2014;32(4):188–92.

    Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

Download references

Author information

Authors and Affiliations

  1. Department of Oral Medicine, University of Washington School of Dentistry, Seattle, WA, USA

    David Dean & Beatrice Gandara

Authors
  1. David Dean
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

  2. Beatrice Gandara
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

Corresponding author

Correspondence to David Dean .

Editor information

Editors and Affiliations

  1. Lenox Hill Hospital Division of Endocrinology, New York, New York, USA

    Leonid Poretsky

Rights and permissions

Reprints and permissions

Copyright information

© 2016 Springer International Publishing Switzerland (outside the USA)

About this entry

Cite this entry

Dean, D., Gandara, B. (2016). Oral Manifestations in Diabetes. In: Poretsky, L. (eds) Principles of Diabetes Mellitus. Springer, Cham. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-319-20797-1_54-1

Download citation

  • DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-319-20797-1_54-1

  • Received:

  • Accepted:

  • Published:

  • Publisher Name: Springer, Cham

  • Online ISBN: 978-3-319-20797-1

  • eBook Packages: Springer Reference MedicineReference Module Medicine

Publish with us

Policies and ethics

Search

Navigation