Skip to main content
SpringerLink
Log in

Gut Hormones and Obesity

  • Reference work entry
  • First Online:
Metabolic Syndrome

  • 3457 Accesses

Abstract

Feeding is ultimately controlled by the central nervous system but is strongly influenced by numerous physiological signals arising from the periphery that either promote or limit energy intake. Broadly speaking, these gut hormones act via neuroendocrine mechanisms to communicate information on changing energy status from the periphery to the brain. Some of these peptides are produced by the gastrointestinal tract itself. Most of these gastrointestinal-derived signals, including cholecystokinin, glucagon-like peptide-1, and peptide YY, promote meal termination; in contrast, the hunger hormone ghrelin promotes the ingestion of food when readily available energy is low. Additionally, supporting organs like the pancreas release feeding-relevant neuroendocrine signals that regulate the internal milieu during nutrient influx. Together, these gut peptides control energy balance through a complicated interplay of physiological, behavioral, and neuroendocrine events. Individual signals are well investigated for their role in the maintenance of normal energy balance, but their roles in obesity – whether relating to the development or consequences of elevated body weight – are often understudied. This represents a critical area of ongoing research. Here, we review several of the major gastrointestinal- and pancreatic-derived gut hormones that contribute to the control of food intake. We discuss their impact on the control of energy balance in lean (i.e., nonobese) individuals and summarize some of the major findings regarding the role of each peptide in the obese state.

This is a preview of subscription content, log in via an institution to check access.

Access this chapter

Log in via an institution

Institutional subscriptions

References

  • Abbott CR, Small CJ, Kennedy AR, et al. Blockade of the neuropeptide Y Y2 receptor with the specific antagonist BIIE0246 attenuates the effect of endogenous and exogenous peptide YY(3-36) on food intake. Brain Res. 2005;1043(1–2):139-144.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Adrian TE, Ferri GL, Bacarese-Hamilton AJ, et al. Human distribution and release of a putative new gut hormone, peptide YY. Gastroenterology. 1985;89(5):1070-1077.

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Adrian TE, Bacarese-Hamilton AJ, Smith HA, et al. Distribution and postprandial release of porcine peptide YY. J Endocrinol. 1987;113(1):11-14.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Ahren B. Plasma leptin and insulin in C57BI/6J mice on a high-fat diet: relation to subsequent changes in body weight. Acta Physiol Scand. 1999;165(2):233-240.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Aicher SA, Springston M, Berger SB, et al. Receptor-selective analogs demonstrate NPY/PYY receptor heterogeneity in rat brain. Neurosci Lett. 1991;130(1):32-36.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Alhadeff AL, Rupprecht LE, Hayes MR. GLP-1 neurons in the nucleus of the solitary tract project directly to the ventral tegmental area and nucleus accumbens to control for food intake. Endocrinology. 2012;153(2):647-658.

    Article  PubMed Central  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Allen JM, Fitzpatrick ML, Yeats JC, et al. Effects of peptide YY and neuropeptide Y on gastric emptying in man. Digestion. 1984;30(4):255-262.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Alvarez-Crespo M, Skibicka KP, Farkas I, et al. The amygdala as a neurobiological target for ghrelin in rats: neuroanatomical, electrophysiological and behavioral evidence. PLoS One. 2012;7(10), e46321.

    Article  PubMed Central  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Arbeeny CM. Addressing the unmet medical need for safe and effective weight loss therapies. Obes Res. 2004;12(8):1191-1196.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Asakawa A, Inui A, Kaga T, et al. Ghrelin is an appetite-stimulatory signal from stomach with structural resemblance to motilin. Gastroenterology. 2001;120(2):337-345.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Asakawa A, Inui A, Kaga T, et al. Antagonism of ghrelin receptor reduces food intake and body weight gain in mice. Gut. 2003;52(7):947-952.

    Article  PubMed Central  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Asakawa A, Inui A, Fujimiya M, et al. Stomach regulates energy balance via acylated ghrelin and desacyl ghrelin. Gut. 2005;54(1):18-24.

    Article  PubMed Central  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Ballantyne GH. Peptide YY(1-36) and peptide YY(3-36): part I. Distribution, release and actions. Obes Surg. 2006;16(5):651-658.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Banks WA. The source of cerebral insulin. Eur J Pharmacol. 2004;490(1–3):5-12.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Banks WA, Kastin AJ. Differential permeability of the blood-brain barrier to two pancreatic peptides: insulin and amylin. Peptides. 1998;19(5):883-889.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Banks WA, Kastin AJ, Maness LM, et al. Permeability of the blood-brain barrier to amylin. Life Sci. 1995;57(22):1993-2001.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Banks WA, Jaspan JB, Kastin AJ. Selective, physiological transport of insulin across the blood-brain barrier: novel demonstration by species-specific radioimmunoassays. Peptides. 1997;18(8):1257-1262.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Banks WA, Tschop M, Robinson SM, et al. Extent and direction of ghrelin transport across the blood-brain barrier is determined by its unique primary structure. J Pharmacol Exp Ther. 2002;302(2):822-827.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Banks WA, Burney BO, Robinson SM. Effects of triglycerides, obesity, and starvation on ghrelin transport across the blood-brain barrier. Peptides. 2008;29(11):2061-2065.

    Article  PubMed Central  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Barrachina MD, Martinez V, Wang L, et al. Synergistic interaction between leptin and cholecystokinin to reduce short-term food intake in lean mice. Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A. 1997;94(19):10455-10460.

    Article  PubMed Central  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Batterham RL, Bloom SR. The gut hormone peptide YY regulates appetite. Ann N Y Acad Sci. 2003;994:162-168.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Batterham RL, Cowley MA, Small CJ, et al. Gut hormone PYY(3-36) physiologically inhibits food intake. Nature. 2002;418(6898):650-654.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Batterham RL, Cohen MA, Ellis SM, et al. Inhibition of food intake in obese subjects by peptide YY3-36. N Engl J Med. 2003;349(10):941-948.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Baura GD, Foster DM, Porte D Jr, et al. Saturable transport of insulin from plasma into the central nervous system of dogs in vivo. A mechanism for regulated insulin delivery to the brain. J Clin Invest. 1993;92(4):1824-1830.

    Article  PubMed Central  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Beaumont K, Kenney MA, Young AA, et al. High affinity amylin binding sites in rat brain. Mol Pharmacol. 1993;44(3):493-497.

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Becskei C, Riediger T, Zund D, et al. Immunohistochemical mapping of calcitonin receptors in the adult rat brain. Brain Res. 2004;1030(2):221-233.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Begg DP, Woods SC. The central insulin system and energy balance. Handb Exp Pharmacol. 2012;209:111-129.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Bello NT, Kemm MH, Ofeldt EM, et al. Dose combinations of exendin-4 and salmon calcitonin produce additive and synergistic reductions in food intake in nonhuman primates. Am J Physiol Regul Integr Comp Physiol. 2010;299(3):R945-R952.

    Article  PubMed Central  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Benoit SC, Clegg DJ, Seeley RJ, et al. Insulin and leptin as adiposity signals. Recent Prog Horm Res. 2004;59:267-285.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Bhavsar S, Watkins J, Young A. Synergy between amylin and cholecystokinin for inhibition of food intake in mice. Physiol Behav. 1998;64(4):557-561.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Blomqvist AG, Herzog H. Y-receptor subtypes – how many more? Trends Neurosci. 1997;20(7):294-298.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Boey D, Lin S, Karl T, et al. Peptide YY ablation in mice leads to the development of hyperinsulinaemia and obesity. Diabetologia. 2006;49(6):1360-1370.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Boggiano MM, Chandler PC, Oswald KD, et al. PYY3-36 as an anti-obesity drug target. Obes Rev. 2005;6(4):307-322.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Boucher J, Kleinridders A, Kahn CR. Insulin receptor signaling in normal and insulin-resistant states. Cold Spring Harb Perspect Biol. 2014; 6(1).

    Google Scholar 

  • Boyle CN, Rossier MM, Lutz TA. Influence of high-fat feeding, diet-induced obesity, and hyperamylinemia on the sensitivity to acute amylin. Physiol Behav. 2011;104(1):20-28.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Bozkurt A, Oktar BK, Kurtel H, et al. Capsaicin-sensitive vagal fibres and 5-HT3-, gastrin releasing peptide- and cholecystokinin A-receptors are involved in distension-induced inhibition of gastric emptying in the rat. Regul Pept. 1999;83(2–3):81-86.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Bray GA. Medical treatment of obesity: the past, the present and the future. Best Pract Res Clin Gastroenterol. 2014;28(4):665-684.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Brief DJ, Davis JD. Reduction of food intake and body weight by chronic intraventricular insulin infusion. Brain Res Bull. 1984;12(5):571-575.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Broom DR, Batterham RL, King JA, et al. Influence of resistance and aerobic exercise on hunger, circulating levels of acylated ghrelin, and peptide YY in healthy males. Am J Physiol Regul Integr Comp Physiol. 2009;296(1):R29-R35.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Brown LM, Clegg DJ, Benoit SC, et al. Intraventricular insulin and leptin reduce food intake and body weight in C57BL/6J mice. Physiol Behav. 2006;89(5):687-691.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Bruijnzeel AW, Corrie LW, Rogers JA, et al. Effects of insulin and leptin in the ventral tegmental area and arcuate hypothalamic nucleus on food intake and brain reward function in female rats. Behav Brain Res. 2011;219(2):254-264.

    Article  PubMed Central  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Burks DJ, Font de Mora J, Schubert M, et al. IRS-2 pathways integrate female reproduction and energy homeostasis. Nature. 2000;407(6802):377-382.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Callahan HS, Cummings DE, Pepe MS, et al. Postprandial suppression of plasma ghrelin level is proportional to ingested caloric load but does not predict intermeal interval in humans. J Clin Endocrinol Metab. 2004;89(3):1319-1324.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Castro G, C Areias MF, Weissmann L, et al. Diet-induced obesity induces endoplasmic reticulum stress and insulin resistance in the amygdala of rats. FEBS Open Bio. 2013;3:443-449.

    Article  PubMed Central  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Catalano KJ, Bergman RN, Ader M. Increased susceptibility to insulin resistance associated with abdominal obesity in aging rats. Obes Res. 2005;13(1):11-20.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Chan JL, Roth JD, Weyer C. It takes two to tango: combined amylin/leptin agonism as a potential approach to obesity drug development. J Investig Med. 2009;57(7):777-783.

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Chandarana K, Gelegen C, Karra E, et al. Diet and gastrointestinal bypass-induced weight loss: the roles of ghrelin and peptide YY. Diabetes. 2011;60(3):810-818.

    Article  PubMed Central  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Chapman I, Parker B, Doran S, et al. Effect of pramlintide on satiety and food intake in obese subjects and subjects with type 2 diabetes. Diabetologia. 2005;48(5):838-848.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Chapman I, Parker B, Doran S, et al. Low-dose pramlintide reduced food intake and meal duration in healthy, normal-weight subjects. Obesity. 2007;15(5):1179-1186.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Chavez M, Riedy CA, Van Dijk G, et al. Central insulin and macronutrient intake in the rat. Am J Physiol. 1996;271(3 Pt 2):R727-R731.

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Chen CH, Rogers RC, Stephens RL Jr. Intracisternal injection of peptide YY inhibits gastric emptying in rats. Regul Pept. 1996;61(2):95-98.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Chen CH, Stephens RL Jr, Rogers RC. PYY and NPY: control of gastric motility via action on Y1 and Y2 receptors in the DVC. Neurogastroenterol Motil. 1997;9(2):109-116.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Christensen R, Kristensen PK, Bartels EM, et al. Efficacy and safety of the weight-loss drug rimonabant: a meta-analysis of randomised trials. Lancet. 2007;370(9600):1706-1713.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Christopoulos G, Paxinos G, Huang XF, et al. Comparative distribution of receptors for amylin and the related peptides calcitonin gene related peptide and calcitonin in rat and monkey brain. Can J Physiol Pharmacol. 1995;73(7):1037-1041.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Clark JT, Sahu A, Kalra PS, et al. Neuropeptide Y (NPY)-induced feeding behavior in female rats: comparison with human NPY ([Met17]NPY), NPY analog ([norLeu4]NPY) and peptide YY. Regul Pept. 1987;17(1):31-39.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Clarke DW, Mudd L, Boyd FT Jr, et al. Insulin is released from rat brain neuronal cells in culture. J Neurochem. 1986;47(3):831-836.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Clementi G, Caruso A, Cutuli VM, et al. Amylin given by central or peripheral routes decreases gastric emptying and intestinal transit in the rat. Experientia. 1996;52(7):677-679.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Cone JJ, McCutcheon JE, Roitman MF. Ghrelin acts as an interface between physiological state and phasic dopamine signaling. J Neurosci. 2014;34(14):4905-4913.

    Article  PubMed Central  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Corp ES, Melville LD, Greenberg D, et al. Effect of fourth ventricular neuropeptide Y and peptide YY on ingestive and other behaviors. Am J Physiol. 1990;259(2 Pt 2):R317-R323.

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Corp ES, McQuade J, Krasnicki S, et al. Feeding after fourth ventricular administration of neuropeptide Y receptor agonists in rats. Peptides. 2001;22(3):493-499.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Covasa M, Ritter RC. Rats maintained on high-fat diets exhibit reduced satiety in response to CCK and bombesin. Peptides. 1998;19(8):1407-1415.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Cowley MA, Smith RG, Diano S, et al. The distribution and mechanism of action of ghrelin in the CNS demonstrates a novel hypothalamic circuit regulating energy homeostasis. Neuron. 2003;37(4):649-661.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Crawley JN, Beinfeld MC. Rapid development of tolerance to the behavioural actions of cholecystokinin. Nature. 1983;302(5910):703-706.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Cuellar JN, Isokawa M. Ghrelin-induced activation of cAMP signal transduction and its negative regulation by endocannabinoids in the hippocampus. Neuropharmacology. 2011;60(6):842-851.

    Article  PubMed Central  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Cummings DE, Purnell JQ, Frayo RS, et al. A preprandial rise in plasma ghrelin levels suggests a role in meal initiation in humans. Diabetes. 2001;50(8):1714-1719.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Cummings DE, Weigle DS, Frayo RS, et al. Plasma ghrelin levels after diet-induced weight loss or gastric bypass surgery. N Engl J Med. 2002;346(21):1623-1630.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Currie PJ, Mirza A, Fuld R, et al. Ghrelin is an orexigenic and metabolic signaling peptide in the arcuate and paraventricular nuclei. Am J Physiol Regul Integr Comp Physiol. 2005;289(2):R353-R358.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Dass NB, Munonyara M, Bassil AK, et al. Growth hormone secretagogue receptors in rat and human gastrointestinal tract and the effects of ghrelin. Neuroscience. 2003;120(2):443-453.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Date Y, Kojima M, Hosoda H, et al. Ghrelin, a novel growth hormone-releasing acylated peptide, is synthesized in a distinct endocrine cell type in the gastrointestinal tracts of rats and humans. Endocrinology. 2000a;141(11):4255-4261.

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Date Y, Murakami N, Kojima M, et al. Central effects of a novel acylated peptide, ghrelin, on growth hormone release in rats. Biochem Biophys Res Commun. 2000b;275(2):477-480.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Daughters RS, Hofbauer RD, Grossman AW, et al. Ondansetron attenuates CCK induced satiety and c-fos labeling in the dorsal medulla. Peptides. 2001;22(8):1331-1338.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • De Jonghe BC, Hajnal A, Covasa M. Increased oral and decreased intestinal sensitivity to sucrose in obese, prediabetic CCK-A receptor-deficient OLETF rats. Am J Physiol Regul Integr Comp Physiol. 2005;288(1):R292-R300.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • De Silva A, Bloom SR. Gut hormones and appetite control: a focus on PYY and GLP-1 as therapeutic targets in obesity. Gut Liver. 2012;6(1):10-20.

    Article  PubMed Central  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • De Smet B, Depoortere I, Moechars D, et al. Energy homeostasis and gastric emptying in ghrelin knockout mice. J Pharmacol Exp Ther. 2006;316(1):431-439.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • De Souza CT, Araujo EP, Bordin S, et al. Consumption of a fat-rich diet activates a proinflammatory response and induces insulin resistance in the hypothalamus. Endocrinology. 2005;146(10):4192-4199.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Degen L, Oesch S, Casanova M, et al. Effect of peptide YY3-36 on food intake in humans. Gastroenterology. 2005;129(5):1430-1436.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Delhanty PJ, Neggers SJ, van der Lely AJ. Mechanisms in endocrinology: ghrelin: the differences between acyl- and des-acyl ghrelin. Eur J Endocrinol. 2012;167(5):601-608.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Dickson SL, Shirazi RH, Hansson C, et al. The glucagon-like peptide 1 (GLP-1) analogue, exendin-4, decreases the rewarding value of food: a new role for mesolimbic GLP-1 receptors. J Neurosci. 2012; 32(14).

    Google Scholar 

  • Dossat AM, Lilly N, Kay K, et al. Glucagon-like peptide 1 receptors in nucleus accumbens affect food intake. J Neurosci. 2011;31(41):14453-14457.

    Article  PubMed Central  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Duca FA, Zhong L, Covasa M. Reduced CCK signaling in obese-prone rats fed a high fat diet. Horm Behav. 2013;64(5):812-817.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Egecioglu E, Jerlhag E, Salome N, et al. Ghrelin increases intake of rewarding food in rodents. Addict Biol. 2010;15(3):304-311.

    Article  PubMed Central  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Eissele R, Goke R, Willemer S, et al. Glucagon-like peptide-1 cells in the gastrointestinal tract and pancreas of rat, pig and man. Eur J Clin Invest. 1992;22(4):283-291.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • El Khoury D, El-Rassi R, Azar S, et al. Postprandial ghrelin and PYY responses of male subjects on low carbohydrate meals to varied balancing proportions of proteins and fats. Eur J Nutr. 2010;49(8):493-500.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Elchebly M, Payette P, Michaliszyn E, et al. Increased insulin sensitivity and obesity resistance in mice lacking the protein tyrosine phosphatase-1B gene. Science. 1999;283(5407):1544-1548.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Emond M, Schwartz GJ, Ladenheim EE, et al. Central leptin modulates behavioral and neural responsivity to CCK. Am J Physiol. 1999;276(5 Pt 2):R1545-R1549.

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • English PJ, Ghatei MA, Malik IA, et al. Food fails to suppress ghrelin levels in obese humans. J Clin Endocrinol Metab. 2002;87(6):2984.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Erdmann J, Topsch R, Lippl F, et al. Postprandial response of plasma ghrelin levels to various test meals in relation to food intake, plasma insulin, and glucose. J Clin Endocrinol Metab. 2004;89(6):3048-3054.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Falls HD, Dayton BD, Fry DG, et al. Characterization of ghrelin receptor activity in a rat pituitary cell line RC-4B/C. J Mol Endocrinol. 2006;37(1):51-62.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Faulconbridge LF, Cummings DE, Kaplan JM, et al. Hyperphagic effects of brainstem ghrelin administration. Diabetes. 2003;52(9):2260-2265.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Fehmann HC, Weber V, Goke R, et al. Islet amyloid polypeptide (IAPP;amylin) influences the endocrine but not the exocrine rat pancreas. Biochem Biophys Res Commun. 1990;167(3):1102-1108.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Fernandes-Santos C, Zhang Z, Morgan DA, et al. Amylin acts in the central nervous system to increase sympathetic nerve activity. Endocrinology. 2013;154(7):2481-2488.

    Article  PubMed Central  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Figlewicz DP, Evans SB, Murphy J, et al. Expression of receptors for insulin and leptin in the ventral tegmental area/substantia nigra (VTA/SN) of the rat. Brain Res. 2003;964(1):107-115.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Figlewicz DP, Bennett J, Evans SB, et al. Intraventricular insulin and leptin reverse place preference conditioned with high-fat diet in rats. Behav Neurosci. 2004;118(3):479-487.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Figlewicz DP, Bennett JL, Naleid AM, et al. Intraventricular insulin and leptin decrease sucrose self-administration in rats. Physiol Behav. 2006;89(4):611-616.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Figlewicz DP, MacDonald Naleid A, Sipols AJ. Modulation of food reward by adiposity signals. Physiol Behav. 2007;91(5):473-478.

    Article  PubMed Central  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Flak JN, Patterson CM, Garfield AS, et al. Leptin-inhibited PBN neurons enhance responses to hypoglycemia in negative energy balance. Nat Neurosci. 2014;17(12):1744-1750.

    Article  PubMed Central  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Flanagan DE, Evans ML, Monsod TP, et al. The influence of insulin on circulating ghrelin. Am J Physiol Endocrinol Metab. 2003;284(2):E313-E316.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Foster LA, Ames NK, Emery RS. Food intake and serum insulin responses to intraventricular infusions of insulin and IGF-I. Physiol Behav. 1991;50(4):745-749.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Gadde KM. Current pharmacotherapy for obesity: extrapolation of clinical trials data to practice. Expert Opin Pharmacother. 2014;15(6):809-822.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Gantz I, Erondu N, Mallick M, et al. Efficacy and safety of intranasal peptide YY3-36 for weight reduction in obese adults. J Clin Endocrinol Metab. 2007;92(5):1754-1757.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Gatta-Cherifi B, Matias I, Vallee M, et al. Simultaneous postprandial deregulation of the orexigenic endocannabinoid anandamide and the anorexigenic peptide YY in obesity. Int J Obes. 2012;36(6):880-885.

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Gerozissis K. Brain insulin and feeding: a bi-directional communication. Eur J Pharmacol. 2004;490(1–3):59-70.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Gibbons C, Caudwell P, Finlayson G, et al. Comparison of postprandial profiles of ghrelin, active GLP-1, and total PYY to meals varying in fat and carbohydrate and their association with hunger and the phases of satiety. J Clin Endocrinol Metab. 2013;98(5):E847-E855.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Gibbs J, Young RC, Smith GP. Cholecystokinin decreases food intake in rats. J Comp Physiol Psychol. 1973;84(3):488-495.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Glandt M, Raz I. Present and future: pharmacologic treatment of obesity. J Obes. 2011;2011:636181.

    Article  PubMed Central  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Glatzle J, Sternini C, Robin C, et al. Expression of 5-HT3 receptors in the rat gastrointestinal tract. Gastroenterology. 2002;123(1):217-226.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Gnanapavan S, Kola B, Bustin SA, et al. The tissue distribution of the mRNA of ghrelin and subtypes of its receptor, GHS-R, in humans. J Clin Endocrinol Metab. 2002;87(6):2988.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Goke R, Larsen PJ, Mikkelsen JD, et al. Distribution of GLP-1 binding sites in the rat brain: evidence that exendin-4 is a ligand of brain GLP-1 binding sites. Eur J Neurosci. 1995;7(11):2294-2300.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Grill HJ, Hayes MR. Hindbrain neurons as an essential hub in the neuroanatomically distributed control of energy balance. Cell Metab. 2012;16(3):296-309.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Gualillo O, Lago F, Dieguez C. Introducing GOAT: a target for obesity and anti-diabetic drugs? Trends Pharmacol Sci. 2008;29(8):398-401.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Guan XM, Yu H, Palyha OC, et al. Distribution of mRNA encoding the growth hormone secretagogue receptor in brain and peripheral tissues. Brain Res Mol Brain Res. 1997;48(1):23-29.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Hansen TK, Dall R, Hosoda H, et al. Weight loss increases circulating levels of ghrelin in human obesity. Clin Endocrinol (Oxf). 2002;56(2):203-206.

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Hay DL, Christopoulos G, Christopoulos A, et al. Amylin receptors: molecular composition and pharmacology. Biochem Soc Trans. 2004;32(Pt 5):865-867.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Hayes MR, Covasa M. CCK and 5-HT act synergistically to suppress food intake through simultaneous activation of CCK-1 and 5-HT3 receptors. Peptides. 2005;26(11):2322-2330.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Hayes MR, Covasa M. Gastric distension enhances CCK-induced Fos-like immunoreactivity in the dorsal hindbrain by activating 5-HT3 receptors. Brain Res. 2006;1088(1):120-130.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Hayes MR, Moore RL, Shah SM, et al. 5-HT3 receptors participate in CCK-induced suppression of food intake by delaying gastric emptying. Am J Physiol Regul Integr Comp Physiol. 2004a;287(4):R817-R823.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Hayes MR, Savastano DM, Covasa M. Cholecystokinin-induced satiety is mediated through interdependent cooperation of CCK-A and 5-HT3 receptors. Physiol Behav. 2004b;82(4):663-669.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Hayes MR, Chory FM, Gallagher CA, et al. Serotonin type-3 receptors mediate cholecystokinin-induced satiation through gastric distension. Am J Physiol Regul Integr Comp Physiol. 2006;291(1):R115-R123.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Hayes MR, Skibicka KP, Grill HJ. Caudal brainstem processing is sufficient for behavioral, sympathetic, and parasympathetic responses driven by peripheral and hindbrain glucagon-like-peptide-1 receptor stimulation. Endocrinology. 2008;149(8):4059-4068.

    Article  PubMed Central  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Hayes MR, De Jonghe BC, Kanoski SE. Role of the glucagon-like-peptide-1 receptor in the control of energy balance. Physiol Behav. 2010a;100(5):503-510.

    Article  PubMed Central  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Hayes MR, Skibicka KP, Leichner TM, et al. Endogenous leptin signaling in the caudal nucleus tractus solitarius and area postrema is required for energy balance regulation. Cell Metab. 2010b;11(1):77-83.

    Article  PubMed Central  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Hayes MR, Mietlicki-Baase EG, Kanoski SE, et al. Incretins and amylin: neuroendocrine communication between the gut, pancreas, and brain in control of food intake and blood glucose. Annu Rev Nutr. 2014;34:237-260.

    Article  PubMed Central  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Heppner KM, Piechowski CL, Muller A, et al. Both acyl and des-acyl ghrelin regulate adiposity and glucose metabolism via central nervous system ghrelin receptors. Diabetes. 2014;63(1):122-131.

    Article  PubMed Central  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Hilton JM, Chai SY, Sexton PM. In vitro autoradiographic localization of the calcitonin receptor isoforms, C1a and C1b, in rat brain. Neuroscience. 1995;69(4):1223-1237.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Holst JJ. The physiology of glucagon-like peptide 1. Physiol Rev. 2007;87(4):1409-1439.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Hosoda H, Kojima M, Matsuo H, et al. Ghrelin and des-acyl ghrelin: two major forms of rat ghrelin peptide in gastrointestinal tissue. Biochem Biophys Res Commun. 2000;279(3):909-913.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Inhoff T, Wiedenmann B, Klapp BF, et al. Is desacyl ghrelin a modulator of food intake? Peptides. 2009;30(5):991-994.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Iniguez SD, Warren BL, Neve RL, et al. Insulin receptor substrate-2 in the ventral tegmental area regulates behavioral responses to cocaine. Behav Neurosci. 2008;122(5):1172-1177.

    Article  PubMed Central  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Istfan NW, Plaisted CS, Bistrian BR, et al. Insulin resistance versus insulin secretion in the hypertension of obesity. Hypertension. 1992;19(4):385-392.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • James WP, Caterson ID, Coutinho W, et al. Effect of sibutramine on cardiovascular outcomes in overweight and obese subjects. N Engl J Med. 2010;363(10):905-917.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Jones TE, Basilio JL, Brophy PM, et al. Long-term exercise training in overweight adolescents improves plasma peptide YY and resistin. Obesity. 2009;17(6):1189-1195.

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Jordan J, Greenway FL, Leiter LA, et al. Stimulation of cholecystokinin-A receptors with GI181771X does not cause weight loss in overweight or obese patients. Clin Pharmacol Ther. 2008;83(2):281-287.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Kaiyala KJ, Prigeon RL, Kahn SE, et al. Obesity induced by a high-fat diet is associated with reduced brain insulin transport in dogs. Diabetes. 2000;49(9):1525-1533.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Kamegai J, Tamura H, Shimizu T, et al. Chronic central infusion of ghrelin increases hypothalamic neuropeptide Y and Agouti-related protein mRNA levels and body weight in rats. Diabetes. 2001;50(11):2438-2443.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Kanoski SE, Fortin SM, Arnold M, et al. Peripheral and central GLP-1 receptor populations mediate the anorectic effects of peripherally administered GLP-1 receptor agonists, liraglutide and exendin-4. Endocrinology. 2011;152(8):3103-3112.

    Article  PubMed Central  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Kanoski SE, Rupprecht LE, Fortin SM, et al. The role of nausea in food intake and body weight suppression by peripheral GLP-1 receptor agonists, exendin-4 and liraglutide. Neuropharmacology. 2012;62(5-6):1916-1927.

    Article  PubMed Central  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Kanoski SE, Fortin SM, Ricks KM, et al. Ghrelin signaling in the ventral hippocampus stimulates learned and motivational aspects of feeding via PI3K-Akt signaling. Biol Psychiatry. 2013;73(9):915-923.

    Article  PubMed Central  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Keire DA, Bowers CW, Solomon TE, et al. Structure and receptor binding of PYY analogs. Peptides. 2002;23(2):305-321.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Kim EM, Grace MK, Welch CC, et al. STZ-induced diabetes decreases and insulin normalizes POMC mRNA in arcuate nucleus and pituitary in rats. Am J Physiol. 1999;276(5 Pt 2):R1320-R1326.

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • King SJ, Isaacs AM, O’Farrell E, et al. Motivation to obtain preferred foods is enhanced by ghrelin in the ventral tegmental area. Horm Behav. 2011;60(5):572-580.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Kinzig KP, D’Alessio DA, Seeley RJ. The diverse roles of specific GLP-1 receptors in the control of food intake and the response to visceral illness. J Neurosci. 2002;22(23):10470-10476.

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Knauf C, Cani PD, Perrin C, et al. Brain glucagon-like peptide-1 increases insulin secretion and muscle insulin resistance to favor hepatic glycogen storage. J Clin Invest. 2005;115(12):3554-3563.

    Article  PubMed Central  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Koda S, Date Y, Murakami N, et al. The role of the vagal nerve in peripheral PYY3-36-induced feeding reduction in rats. Endocrinology. 2005;146(5):2369-2375.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Kojima M, Hosoda H, Date Y, et al. Ghrelin is a growth-hormone-releasing acylated peptide from stomach. Nature. 1999;402(6762):656-660.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Kubota N, Terauchi Y, Tobe K, et al. Insulin receptor substrate 2 plays a crucial role in beta cells and the hypothalamus. J Clin Invest. 2004;114(7):917-927.

    Article  PubMed Central  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Lampel M, Kern HF. Acute interstitial pancreatitis in the rat induced by excessive doses of a pancreatic secretagogue. Virchows Arch A Pathol Anat Histol. 1977;373(2):97-117.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Lauritzen ES, Voss T, Kampmann U, et al. Circulating acylghrelin levels are suppressed by insulin and increase in response to hypoglycemia in healthy adult volunteers. Eur J Endocrinol. 2015;172(4):357-362.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Le Foll C, Johnson MD, Dunn-Meynell A, et al. Amylin-induced central IL-6 production enhances ventromedial hypothalamic leptin signaling. Diabetes. 2014.

    Google Scholar 

  • le Roux CW, Neary NM, Halsey TJ, et al. Ghrelin does not stimulate food intake in patients with surgical procedures involving vagotomy. J Clin Endocrinol Metab. 2005;90(8):4521-4524.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Lien LF, Haqq AM, Arlotto M, et al. The STEDMAN project: biophysical, biochemical and metabolic effects of a behavioral weight loss intervention during weight loss, maintenance, and regain. OMICS. 2009;13(1):21-35.

    Article  PubMed Central  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Lin X, Taguchi A, Park S, et al. Dysregulation of insulin receptor substrate 2 in beta cells and brain causes obesity and diabetes. J Clin Invest. 2004;114(7):908-916.

    Article  PubMed Central  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Lundberg JM, Tatemoto K, Terenius L, et al. Localization of peptide YY (PYY) in gastrointestinal endocrine cells and effects on intestinal blood flow and motility. Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A. 1982;79(14):4471-4475.

    Article  PubMed Central  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Lutz TA. Pancreatic amylin as a centrally acting satiating hormone. Curr Drug Targets. 2005;6(2):181-189.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Lutz TA. The role of amylin in the control of energy homeostasis. Am J Physiol Regul Integr Comp Physiol. 2010a;298(6):R1475-R1484.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Lutz TA. Roles of amylin in satiation, adiposity and brain development. Forum Nutr. 2010b;63:64-74.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Lutz TA. The interaction of amylin with other hormones in the control of eating. Diabetes Obes Metab. 2013;15(2):99-111.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Lutz TA, Del Prete E, Scharrer E. Reduction of food intake in rats by intraperitoneal injection of low doses of amylin. Physiol Behav. 1994;55(5):891-895.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Lutz TA, Del Prete E, Scharrer E. Subdiaphragmatic vagotomy does not influence the anorectic effect of amylin. Peptides. 1995a;16(3):457-462.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Lutz TA, Geary N, Szabady MM, et al. Amylin decreases meal size in rats. Physiol Behav. 1995b;58(6):1197-1202.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Lutz TA, Senn M, Althaus J, et al. Lesion of the area postrema/nucleus of the solitary tract (AP/NTS) attenuates the anorectic effects of amylin and calcitonin gene-related peptide (CGRP) in rats. Peptides. 1998;19(2):309-317.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Lutz TA, Mollet A, Rushing PA, et al. The anorectic effect of a chronic peripheral infusion of amylin is abolished in area postrema/nucleus of the solitary tract (AP/NTS) lesioned rats. Int J Obes Relat Metab Disord. 2001;25(7):1005-1011.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Makovec F, Bani M, Cereda R, et al. Protective effect of CR 1409 (cholecystokinin antagonist) on experimental pancreatitis in rats and mice. Peptides. 1986;7(6):1159-1164.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Malabu UH, McCarthy HD, McKibbin PE, et al. Peripheral insulin administration attenuates the increase in neuropeptide Y concentrations in the hypothalamic arcuate nucleus of fasted rats. Peptides. 1992;13(6):1097-1102.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Mathis C, Moran TH, Schwartz GJ. Load-sensitive rat gastric vagal afferents encode volume but not gastric nutrients. Am J Physiol. 1998;274(2 Pt 2):R280-R286.

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Matson CA, Wiater MF, Kuijper JL, et al. Synergy between leptin and cholecystokinin (CCK) to control daily caloric intake. Peptides. 1997;18(8):1275-1278.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Matson CA, Reid DF, Cannon TA, et al. Cholecystokinin and leptin act synergistically to reduce body weight. Am J Physiol Regul Integr Comp Physiol. 2000;278(4):R882-R890.

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Mazda T, Yamamoto H, Fujimura M, et al. Gastric distension-induced release of 5-HT stimulates c-fos expression in specific brain nuclei via 5-HT3 receptors in conscious rats. Am J Physiol Gastrointest Liver Physiol. 2004;287(1):G228-G235.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • McAllister EJ, Dhurandhar NV, Keith SW, et al. Ten putative contributors to the obesity epidemic. Crit Rev Food Sci Nutr. 2009;49(10):868-913.

    Article  PubMed Central  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Mebel DM, Wong JC, Dong YJ, et al. Insulin in the ventral tegmental area reduces hedonic feeding and suppresses dopamine concentration via increased reuptake. Eur J Neurosci. 2012;36(3):2336-2346.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Medeiros MD, Turner AJ. Processing and metabolism of peptide-YY: pivotal roles of dipeptidylpeptidase-IV, aminopeptidase-P, and endopeptidase-24.11. Endocrinology. 1994;134(5):2088-2094.

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Merchenthaler I, Lane M, Shughrue P. Distribution of pre-pro-glucagon and glucagon-like peptide-1 receptor messenger RNAs in the rat central nervous system. J Comp Neurol. 1999;403(2):261-280.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Meye FJ, Adan RA. Feelings about food: the ventral tegmental area in food reward and emotional eating. Trends Pharmacol Sci. 2014;35(1):31-40.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Meyer-Gerspach AC, Wolnerhanssen B, Beglinger B, et al. Gastric and intestinal satiation in obese and normal weight healthy people. Physiol Behav. 2014;129:265-271.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Mietlicki-Baase EG, Hayes MR. Amylin activates distributed CNS nuclei to control energy balance. Physiol Behav. 2014;136:39-46.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Mietlicki-Baase EG, Ortinski PI, Rupprecht LE, et al. The food intake-suppressive effects of glucagon-like peptide-1 receptor signaling in the ventral tegmental area are mediated by AMPA/kainate receptors. Am J Physiol Endocrinol Metab. 2013a.

    Google Scholar 

  • Mietlicki-Baase EG, Rupprecht LE, Olivos DR, et al. Amylin receptor signaling in the ventral tegmental area is physiologically relevant for the control of food intake. Neuropsychopharmacology. 2013b;38(9):1685-1697.

    Article  PubMed Central  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Mietlicki-Baase EG, Ortinski PI, Reiner DJ, et al. Glucagon-like peptide-1 receptor activation in the nucleus accumbens core suppresses feeding by increasing glutamatergic AMPA/kainate signaling. J Neurosci. 2014;34(20):6985-6992.

    Article  PubMed Central  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Mietlicki-Baase EG, Reiner DJ, Cone JJ, et al. Amylin modulates the mesolimbic dopamine system to control energy balance. Neuropsychopharmacology. 2015;40(2):372-385.

    Article  PubMed Central  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Mollet A, Meier S, Grabler V, et al. Endogenous amylin contributes to the anorectic effects of cholecystokinin and bombesin. Peptides. 2003;24(1):91-98.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Mollet A, Gilg S, Riediger T, et al. Infusion of the amylin antagonist AC 187 into the area postrema increases food intake in rats. Physiol Behav. 2004;81(1):149-155.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Moran TH. Gut peptide signaling in the controls of food intake. Obesity. 2006;14(Suppl 5):250S-253S.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Moran TH, McHugh PR. Cholecystokinin suppresses food intake by inhibiting gastric emptying. Am J Physiol. 1982;242(5):R491-R497.

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Moran TH, Ameglio PJ, Schwartz GJ, et al. Blockade of type A, not type B, CCK receptors attenuates satiety actions of exogenous and endogenous CCK. Am J Physiol. 1992;262(1 Pt 2):R46-R50.

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Moran TH, Katz LF, Plata-Salaman CR, et al. Disordered food intake and obesity in rats lacking cholecystokinin A receptors. Am J Physiol. 1998;274(3 Pt 2):R618-R625.

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Moran TH, Ladenheim EE, Schwartz GJ. Within-meal gut feedback signaling. Int J Obes Relat Metab Disord. 2001;25(Suppl 5):S39-S41.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Moran TH, Smedh U, Kinzig KP, et al. Peptide YY(3-36) inhibits gastric emptying and produces acute reductions in food intake in rhesus monkeys. Am J Physiol Regul Integr Comp Physiol. 2005;288(2):R384-R388.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Mordes JP, Liu C, Xu S. Medications for weight loss. Curr Opin Endocrinol Diabetes Obes. 2015;22(2):91-97.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Moriya R, Mashiko S, Ishihara A, et al. Comparison of independent and combined chronic anti-obese effects of NPY Y2 receptor agonist, PYY(3-36), and NPY Y5 receptor antagonist in diet-induced obese mice. Peptides. 2009;30(7):1318-1322.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Morley JE, Levine AS, Grace M, et al. Peptide YY (PYY), a potent orexigenic agent. Brain Res. 1985;341(1):200-203.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Munzberg H, Flier JS, Bjorbaek C. Region-specific leptin resistance within the hypothalamus of diet-induced obese mice. Endocrinology. 2004;145(11):4880-4889.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Murakami N, Hayashida T, Kuroiwa T, et al. Role for central ghrelin in food intake and secretion profile of stomach ghrelin in rats. J Endocrinol. 2002;174(2):283-288.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Myer JR, Romach EH, Elangbam CS. Species- and dose-specific pancreatic responses and progression in single- and repeat-dose studies with GI181771X: a novel cholecystokinin 1 receptor agonist in mice, rats, and monkeys. Toxicol Pathol. 2014;42(1):260-274.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Nakazato M, Murakami N, Date Y, et al. A role for ghrelin in the central regulation of feeding. Nature. 2001;409(6817):194-198.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Naleid AM, Grace MK, Cummings DE, et al. Ghrelin induces feeding in the mesolimbic reward pathway between the ventral tegmental area and the nucleus accumbens. Peptides. 2005;26(11):2274-2279.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Narayanan NS, Guarnieri DJ, DiLeone RJ. Metabolic hormones, dopamine circuits, and feeding. Front Neuroendocrinol. 2010;31(1):104-112.

    Article  PubMed Central  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Ng M, Fleming T, Robinson M, et al. Global, regional, and national prevalence of overweight and obesity in children and adults during 1980–2013: a systematic analysis for the Global Burden of Disease Study 2013. Lancet. 2014;384(9945):766-781.

    Article  PubMed Central  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Niswender KD, Morrison CD, Clegg DJ, et al. Insulin activation of phosphatidylinositol 3-kinase in the hypothalamic arcuate nucleus: a key mediator of insulin-induced anorexia. Diabetes. 2003;52(2):227-231.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Nonaka N, Shioda S, Niehoff ML, et al. Characterization of blood-brain barrier permeability to PYY3-36 in the mouse. J Pharmacol Exp Ther. 2003;306(3):948-953.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Norgren R. The gustatory system in mammals. Am J Otolaryngol. 1983;4(4):234-237.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Ogawa A, Harris V, McCorkle SK, et al. Amylin secretion from the rat pancreas and its selective loss after streptozotocin treatment. J Clin Invest. 1990;85(3):973-976.

    Article  PubMed Central  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Olszewski PK, Grace MK, Billington CJ, et al. Hypothalamic paraventricular injections of ghrelin: effect on feeding and c-Fos immunoreactivity. Peptides. 2003a;24(6):919-923.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Olszewski PK, Li D, Grace MK, et al. Neural basis of orexigenic effects of ghrelin acting within lateral hypothalamus. Peptides. 2003b;24(4):597-602.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Overduin J, Frayo RS, Grill HJ, et al. Role of the duodenum and macronutrient type in ghrelin regulation. Endocrinology. 2005;146(2):845-850.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Overduin J, Tylee TS, Frayo RS, et al. Hyperosmolarity in the small intestine contributes to postprandial ghrelin suppression. Am J Physiol Gastrointest Liver Physiol. 2014;306(12):G1108-G1116.

    Article  PubMed Central  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Page AJ, Slattery JA, Milte C, et al. Ghrelin selectively reduces mechanosensitivity of upper gastrointestinal vagal afferents. Am J Physiol Gastrointest Liver Physiol. 2007;292(5):G1376-G1384.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Pardini AW, Nguyen HT, Figlewicz DP, et al. Distribution of insulin receptor substrate-2 in brain areas involved in energy homeostasis. Brain Res. 2006;1112(1):169-178.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Paxinos G, Chai SY, Christopoulos G, et al. In vitro autoradiographic localization of calcitonin and amylin binding sites in monkey brain. J Chem Neuroanat. 2004;27(4):217-236.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Peters JH, Karpiel AB, Ritter RC, et al. Cooperative activation of cultured vagal afferent neurons by leptin and cholecystokinin. Endocrinology. 2004;145(8):3652-3657.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Peters JH, Ritter RC, Simasko SM. Leptin and CCK selectively activate vagal afferent neurons innervating the stomach and duodenum. Am J Physiol Regul Integr Comp Physiol. 2006;290(6):R1544-R1549.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Phelan S, Wadden TA. Combining behavioral and pharmacological treatments for obesity. Obes Res. 2002;10(6):560-574.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Phillips RJ, Powley TL. Gastric volume rather than nutrient content inhibits food intake. Am J Physiol. 1996;271(3 Pt 2):R766-R769.

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Posey KA, Clegg DJ, Printz RL, et al. Hypothalamic proinflammatory lipid accumulation, inflammation, and insulin resistance in rats fed a high-fat diet. Am J Physiol Endocrinol Metab. 2009;296(5):E1003-E1012.

    Article  PubMed Central  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Powley TL, Phillips RJ. Gastric satiation is volumetric, intestinal satiation is nutritive. Physiol Behav. 2004;82(1):69-74.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Qiu J, Zhang C, Borgquist A, et al. Insulin excites anorexigenic proopiomelanocortin neurons via activation of canonical transient receptor potential channels. Cell Metab. 2014;19(4):682-693.

    Article  PubMed Central  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Rahardjo GL, Huang XF, Tan YY, et al. Decreased plasma peptide YY accompanied by elevated peptide YY and Y2 receptor binding densities in the medulla oblongata of diet-induced obese mice. Endocrinology. 2007;148(10):4704-4710.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Raposinho PD, Pierroz DD, Broqua P, et al. Chronic administration of neuropeptide Y into the lateral ventricle of C57BL/6J male mice produces an obesity syndrome including hyperphagia, hyperleptinemia, insulin resistance, and hypogonadism. Mol Cell Endocrinol. 2001;185(1–2):195-204.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Ravussin E, Smith SR, Mitchell JA, et al. Enhanced weight loss with pramlintide/metreleptin: an integrated neurohormonal approach to obesity pharmacotherapy. Obesity. 2009;17(9):1736-1743.

    Article  PubMed Central  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Reidelberger RD, O’Rourke MF. Potent cholecystokinin antagonist L 364718 stimulates food intake in rats. Am J Physiol. 1989;257(6 Pt 2):R1512-R1518.

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Reidelberger RD, Varga G, Solomon TE. Effects of selective cholecystokinin antagonists L364,718 and L365,260 on food intake in rats. Peptides. 1991;12(6):1215-1221.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Reidelberger RD, Haver AC, Chelikani PK, et al. Effects of different intermittent peptide YY (3-36) dosing strategies on food intake, body weight, and adiposity in diet-induced obese rats. Am J Physiol Regul Integr Comp Physiol. 2008;295(2):R449-R458.

    Article  PubMed Central  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Riediger T, Schmid HA, Lutz T, et al. Amylin potently activates AP neurons possibly via formation of the excitatory second messenger cGMP. Am J Physiol Regul Integr Comp Physiol. 2001;281(6):R1833-R1843.

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Riedy CA, Chavez M, Figlewicz DP, et al. Central insulin enhances sensitivity to cholecystokinin. Physiol Behav. 1995;58(4):755-760.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Ritter RC. Gastrointestinal mechanisms of satiation for food. Physiol Behav. 2004;81(2):249-273.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Rodgers RJ, Tschop MH, Wilding JP. Anti-obesity drugs: past, present and future. Dis Model Mech. 2012;5(5):621-626.

    Article  PubMed Central  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Rosenbaum M, Kissileff HR, Mayer LE, et al. Energy intake in weight-reduced humans. Brain Res. 2010;1350:95-102.

    Article  PubMed Central  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Roth JD, Hughes H, Kendall E, et al. Antiobesity effects of the beta-cell hormone amylin in diet-induced obese rats: effects on food intake, body weight, composition, energy expenditure, and gene expression. Endocrinology. 2006;147(12):5855-5864.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Roth JD, Roland BL, Cole RL, et al. Leptin responsiveness restored by amylin agonism in diet-induced obesity: evidence from nonclinical and clinical studies. Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A. 2008;105(20):7257-7262.

    Article  PubMed Central  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Roth JD, Maier H, Chen S, et al. Implications of amylin receptor agonism: integrated neurohormonal mechanisms and therapeutic applications. Arch Neurol. 2009;66(3):306-310.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Russo SJ, Bolanos CA, Theobald DE, et al. IRS2-Akt pathway in midbrain dopamine neurons regulates behavioral and cellular responses to opiates. Nat Neurosci. 2007;10(1):93-99.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Sadry SA, Drucker DJ. Emerging combinatorial hormone therapies for the treatment of obesity and T2DM. Nat Rev Endocrinol. 2013;9(7):425-433.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Sarwer DB, von Sydow Green A, Vetter ML, et al. Behavior therapy for obesity: where are we now? Curr Opin Endocrinol Diabetes Obes. 2009;16(5):347-352.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Sato I, Arima H, Ozaki N, et al. Insulin inhibits neuropeptide Y gene expression in the arcuate nucleus through GABAergic systems. J Neurosci. 2005;25(38):8657-8664.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Savastano DM, Covasa M. Adaptation to a high-fat diet leads to hyperphagia and diminished sensitivity to cholecystokinin in rats. J Nutr. 2005;135(8):1953-1959.

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Schellekens H, Dinan TG, Cryan JF. Lean mean fat reducing “ghrelin” machine: hypothalamic ghrelin and ghrelin receptors as therapeutic targets in obesity. Neuropharmacology. 2010;58(1):2-16.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Schick RR, Zimmermann JP, vorm Walde T, et al. Peptides that regulate food intake: glucagon-like peptide 1-(7-36) amide acts at lateral and medial hypothalamic sites to suppress feeding in rats. Am J Physiol Regul Integr Comp Physiol. 2003;284(6):R1427-R1435.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Schmitz O, Brock B, Rungby J. Amylin agonists: a novel approach in the treatment of diabetes. Diabetes. 2004;53(Suppl 3):S233-S238.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Schwartz GJ, Moran TH. Sub-diaphragmatic vagal afferent integration of meal-related gastrointestinal signals. Neurosci Biobehav Rev. 1996;20(1):47-56.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Schwartz GJ, Netterville LA, McHugh PR, et al. Gastric loads potentiate inhibition of food intake produced by a cholecystokinin analogue. Am J Physiol. 1991a;261(5 Pt 2):R1141-R1146.

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Schwartz MW, Marks JL, Sipols AJ, et al. Central insulin administration reduces neuropeptide Y mRNA expression in the arcuate nucleus of food-deprived lean (Fa/Fa) but not obese (fa/fa) Zucker rats. Endocrinology. 1991b;128(5):2645-2647.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Schwartz MW, Sipols AJ, Marks JL, et al. Inhibition of hypothalamic neuropeptide Y gene expression by insulin. Endocrinology. 1992;130(6):3608-3616.

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Schwartz GJ, McHugh PR, Moran TH. Gastric loads and cholecystokinin synergistically stimulate rat gastric vagal afferents. Am J Physiol. 1993;265(4 Pt 2):R872-R876.

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Schwartz MW, Seeley RJ, Tschop MH, et al. Cooperation between brain and islet in glucose homeostasis and diabetes. Nature. 2013;503(7474):59-66.

    Article  PubMed Central  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Scott V, Kimura N, Stark JA, et al. Intravenous peptide YY3-36 and Y2 receptor antagonism in the rat: effects on feeding behaviour. J Neuroendocrinol. 2005;17(7):452-457.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Seimon RV, Feltrin KL, Meyer JH, et al. Effects of varying combinations of intraduodenal lipid and carbohydrate on antropyloroduodenal motility, hormone release, and appetite in healthy males. Am J Physiol Regul Integr Comp Physiol. 2009;296(4):R912-R920.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Sexton PM, Paxinos G, Kenney MA, et al. In vitro autoradiographic localization of amylin binding sites in rat brain. Neuroscience. 1994;62(2):553-567.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Shearman LP, Wang SP, Helmling S, et al. Ghrelin neutralization by a ribonucleic acid-SPM ameliorates obesity in diet-induced obese mice. Endocrinology. 2006;147(3):1517-1526.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Shiiya T, Nakazato M, Mizuta M, et al. Plasma ghrelin levels in lean and obese humans and the effect of glucose on ghrelin secretion. J Clin Endocrinol Metab. 2002;87(1):240-244.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Shintani M, Ogawa Y, Ebihara K, et al. Ghrelin, an endogenous growth hormone secretagogue, is a novel orexigenic peptide that antagonizes leptin action through the activation of hypothalamic neuropeptide Y/Y1 receptor pathway. Diabetes. 2001;50(2):227-232.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Shuto Y, Shibasaki T, Wada K, et al. Generation of polyclonal antiserum against the growth hormone secretagogue receptor (GHS-R): evidence that the GHS-R exists in the hypothalamus, pituitary and stomach of rats. Life Sci. 2001;68(9):991-996.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Shuto Y, Shibasaki T, Otagiri A, et al. Hypothalamic growth hormone secretagogue receptor regulates growth hormone secretion, feeding, and adiposity. J Clin Invest. 2002;109(11):1429-1436.

    Article  PubMed Central  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Silva AP, Cavadas C, Grouzmann E. Neuropeptide Y and its receptors as potential therapeutic drug targets. Clin Chim Acta. 2002;326(1–2):3-25.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Singh-Franco D, Robles G, Gazze D. Pramlintide acetate injection for the treatment of type 1 and type 2 diabetes mellitus. Clin Ther. 2007;29(4):535-562.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Sipols AJ, Baskin DG, Schwartz MW. Effect of intracerebroventricular insulin infusion on diabetic hyperphagia and hypothalamic neuropeptide gene expression. Diabetes. 1995;44(2):147-151.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Skibicka KP, Hansson C, Alvarez-Crespo M, et al. Ghrelin directly targets the ventral tegmental area to increase food motivation. Neuroscience. 2011;180:129-137.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Skofitsch G, Wimalawansa SJ, Jacobowitz DM, et al. Comparative immunohistochemical distribution of amylin-like and calcitonin gene related peptide like immunoreactivity in the rat central nervous system. Can J Physiol Pharmacol. 1995;73(7):945-956.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Sloth B, Davidsen L, Holst JJ, et al. Effect of subcutaneous injections of PYY1-36 and PYY3-36 on appetite, ad libitum energy intake, and plasma free fatty acid concentration in obese males. Am J Physiol Endocrinol Metab. 2007;293(2):E604-E609.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Smith GP, Jerome C, Norgren R. Afferent axons in abdominal vagus mediate satiety effect of cholecystokinin in rats. Am J Physiol. 1985;249(5 Pt 2):R638-R641.

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Smith SR, Blundell JE, Burns C, et al. Pramlintide treatment reduces 24-h caloric intake and meal sizes and improves control of eating in obese subjects: a 6-wk translational research study. Am J Physiol Endocrinol Metab. 2007;293(2):E620-E627.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Stadlbauer U, Arnold M, Weber E, et al. Possible mechanisms of circulating PYY-induced satiation in male rats. Endocrinology. 2013;154(1):193-204.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Stevanovic DM, Grefhorst A, Themmen AP, et al. Unacylated ghrelin suppresses ghrelin-induced neuronal activity in the hypothalamus and brainstem of male rats. PLoS One. 2014;9(5), e98180.

    Article  PubMed Central  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Surina-Baumgartner DM, Langhans W, Geary N. Hepatic portal insulin antibody infusion increases, but insulin does not alter, spontaneous meal size in rats. Am J Physiol. 1995;269(5 Pt 2):R978-R982.

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Takagi K, Legrand R, Asakawa A, et al. Anti-ghrelin immunoglobulins modulate ghrelin stability and its orexigenic effect in obese mice and humans. Nat Commun. 2013;4:2685.

    Article  PubMed Central  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Takiguchi S, Takata Y, Funakoshi A, et al. Disrupted cholecystokinin type-A receptor (CCKAR) gene in OLETF rats. Gene. 1997;197(1–2):169-175.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Tatemoto K. Isolation and characterization of peptide YY (PYY), a candidate gut hormone that inhibits pancreatic exocrine secretion. Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A. 1982;79(8):2514-2518.

    Article  PubMed Central  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Teubner BJ, Bartness TJ. Anti-ghrelin Spiegelmer inhibits exogenous ghrelin-induced increases in food intake, hoarding, and neural activation, but not food deprivation-induced increases. Am J Physiol Regul Integr Comp Physiol. 2013;305(4):R323-R333.

    Article  PubMed Central  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Thomas DM, Bouchard C, Church T, et al. Why do individuals not lose more weight from an exercise intervention at a defined dose? An energy balance analysis. Obes Rev. 2012;13(10):835-847.

    Article  PubMed Central  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Toshinai K, Yamaguchi H, Sun Y, et al. Des-acyl ghrelin induces food intake by a mechanism independent of the growth hormone secretagogue receptor. Endocrinology. 2006;147(5):2306-2314.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Traebert M, Riediger T, Whitebread S, et al. Ghrelin acts on leptin-responsive neurones in the rat arcuate nucleus. J Neuroendocrinol. 2002;14(7):580-586.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Tremblay A. Nutritional determinants of the insulin resistance syndrome. Int J Obes Relat Metab Disord. 1995;19(Suppl 1):S60-S68.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Troke RC, Tan TM, Bloom SR. The future role of gut hormones in the treatment of obesity. Ther Adv Chronic Dis. 2014;5(1):4-14.

    Article  PubMed Central  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Tschop M, Smiley DL, Heiman ML. Ghrelin induces adiposity in rodents. Nature. 2000;407(6806):908-913.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Tschop M, Wawarta R, Riepl RL, et al. Post-prandial decrease of circulating human ghrelin levels. J Endocrinol Invest. 2001a;24(6):RC19-RC21.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Tschop M, Weyer C, Tataranni PA, et al. Circulating ghrelin levels are decreased in human obesity. Diabetes. 2001b;50(4):707-709.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Tschop M, Castaneda TR, Joost HG, et al. Physiology: does gut hormone PYY3-36 decrease food intake in rodents? Nature. 2004; 430(6996): 1 p following 165; discussion 162 p following 165.

    Google Scholar 

  • Turek VF, Trevaskis JL, Levin BE, et al. Mechanisms of amylin/leptin synergy in rodent models. Endocrinology. 2010;151(1):143-152.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Ueda SY, Yoshikawa T, Katsura Y, et al. Changes in gut hormone levels and negative energy balance during aerobic exercise in obese young males. J Endocrinol. 2009;201(1):151-159.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Ueno H, Yamaguchi H, Mizuta M, et al. The role of PYY in feeding regulation. Regul Pept. 2008;145(1–3):12-16.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Vetter ML, Faulconbridge LF, Webb VL, et al. Behavioral and pharmacologic therapies for obesity. Nat Rev Endocrinol. 2010;6(10):578-588.

    PubMed Central  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Vrang N, Madsen AN, Tang-Christensen M, et al. PYY(3-36) reduces food intake and body weight and improves insulin sensitivity in rodent models of diet-induced obesity. Am J Physiol Regul Integr Comp Physiol. 2006;291(2):R367-R375.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Vucetic Z, Reyes TM. Central dopaminergic circuitry controlling food intake and reward: implications for the regulation of obesity. Wiley Interdiscip Rev Syst Biol Med. 2010;2(5):577-593.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Wang J, Leibowitz KL. Central insulin inhibits hypothalamic galanin and neuropeptide Y gene expression and peptide release in intact rats. Brain Res. 1997;777(1–2):231-236.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Wang FB, Powley TL. Topographic inventories of vagal afferents in gastrointestinal muscle. J Comp Neurol. 2000;421(3):302-324.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Wei Y, Mojsov S. Tissue-specific expression of the human receptor for glucagon-like peptide-I: brain, heart and pancreatic forms have the same deduced amino acid sequences. FEBS Lett. 1995;358(3):219-224.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Wielinga PY, Alder B, Lutz TA. The acute effect of amylin and salmon calcitonin on energy expenditure. Physiol Behav. 2007;91(2–3):212-217.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Wielinga PY, Lowenstein C, Muff S, et al. Central amylin acts as an adiposity signal to control body weight and energy expenditure. Physiol Behav. 2010;101(1):45-52.

    Article  PubMed Central  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Willesen MG, Kristensen P, Romer J. Co-localization of growth hormone secretagogue receptor and NPY mRNA in the arcuate nucleus of the rat. Neuroendocrinology. 1999;70(5):306-316.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Williams DL, Cummings DE, Grill HJ, et al. Meal-related ghrelin suppression requires postgastric feedback. Endocrinology. 2003;144(7):2765-2767.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Williams KW, Margatho LO, Lee CE, et al. Segregation of acute leptin and insulin effects in distinct populations of arcuate proopiomelanocortin neurons. J Neurosci. 2010;30(7):2472-2479.

    Article  PubMed Central  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Woods SC, Langhans W. Inconsistencies in the assessment of food intake. Am J Physiol Endocrinol Metab. 2012;303(12):E1408-E1418.

    Article  PubMed Central  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Woods SC, Lotter EC, McKay LD, et al. Chronic intracerebroventricular infusion of insulin reduces food intake and body weight of baboons. Nature. 1979;282(5738):503-505.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Woods SC, Stein LJ, McKay LD, et al. Suppression of food intake by intravenous nutrients and insulin in the baboon. Am J Physiol. 1984;247(2 Pt 2):R393-R401.

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Woods SC, Porte D Jr, Bobbioni E, et al. Insulin: its relationship to the central nervous system and to the control of food intake and body weight. Am J Clin Nutr. 1985;42(5 Suppl):1063-1071.

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Woods SC, Seeley RJ, Baskin DG, et al. Insulin and the blood-brain barrier. Curr Pharm Des. 2003;9(10):795-800.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Wren AM, Seal LJ, Cohen MA, et al. Ghrelin enhances appetite and increases food intake in humans. J Clin Endocrinol Metab. 2001a;86(12):5992.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Wren AM, Small CJ, Abbott CR, et al. Ghrelin causes hyperphagia and obesity in rats. Diabetes. 2001b;50(11):2540-2547.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Xu G, Li Y, An W, et al. Gastric mammalian target of rapamycin signaling regulates ghrelin production and food intake. Endocrinology. 2009;150(8):3637-3644.

    Article  PubMed Central  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Yang J, Brown MS, Liang G, et al. Identification of the acyltransferase that octanoylates ghrelin, an appetite-stimulating peptide hormone. Cell. 2008;132(3):387-396.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Yasuda T, Masaki T, Kakuma T, et al. Centrally administered ghrelin suppresses sympathetic nerve activity in brown adipose tissue of rats. Neurosci Lett. 2003;349(2):75-78.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Ye J, Kraegen T. Insulin resistance: central and peripheral mechanisms. The 2007 Stock Conference Report. Obes Rev. 2008;9(1):30-34.

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Zac-Varghese S, De Silva A, Bloom SR. Translational studies on PYY as a novel target in obesity. Curr Opin Pharmacol. 2011;11(6):582-585.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Zhang W, Chai B, Li JY, et al. Effect of des-acyl ghrelin on adiposity and glucose metabolism. Endocrinology. 2008;149(9):4710-4716.

    Article  PubMed Central  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Zwirska-Korczala K, Konturek SJ, Sodowski M, et al. Basal and postprandial plasma levels of PYY, ghrelin, cholecystokinin, gastrin and insulin in women with moderate and morbid obesity and metabolic syndrome. J Physiol Pharmacol. 2007;58(Suppl 1):13-35.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

Download references

Acknowledgments

This work was supported in part by NIH DK103804 (EGM-B) and DK096139 (MRH).

Author information

Authors and Affiliations

  1. Translational Neuroscience Program, Department of Psychiatry, Perelman School of Medicine, University of Pennsylvania, TRL building, Office 2219 125 South 31st, Philadelphia, PA, 19104, USA

    Elizabeth G. Mietlicki-Baase & Matthew R. Hayes

Authors
  1. Elizabeth G. Mietlicki-Baase
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

  2. Matthew R. Hayes
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

Corresponding authors

Correspondence to Elizabeth G. Mietlicki-Baase or Matthew R. Hayes .

Editor information

Editors and Affiliations

  1. Division of Endocrinology, Diabetes and Metabolism, Perelman School of Medicine, University of Pennsylvania, Philadelphia, PA, USA

    Rexford S. Ahima

  2. Institute for Diabetes, Obesity and Metabolism, University of Pennsylvania, Philadelphia, PA, USA

    Rexford S. Ahima

Rights and permissions

Reprints and permissions

Copyright information

© 2016 Springer International Publishing Switzerland

About this entry

Cite this entry

Mietlicki-Baase, E.G., Hayes, M.R. (2016). Gut Hormones and Obesity. In: Ahima, R.S. (eds) Metabolic Syndrome. Springer, Cham. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-319-11251-0_25

Download citation

  • DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-319-11251-0_25

  • Published:

  • Publisher Name: Springer, Cham

  • Print ISBN: 978-3-319-11250-3

  • Online ISBN: 978-3-319-11251-0

  • eBook Packages: MedicineReference Module Medicine

Publish with us

Policies and ethics

Search

Navigation