International Status of Women in the Chemical Sciences

Abstract

Globally, the participation and advancement of women chemical scientists as they progress through higher education and their careers continue to lag behind those of their male colleagues (National Science Foundation (NSF), National Center for Science and Engineering Statistics (NCSES) 2013a, 2013b, 2013c; National Research Council 2007; Marzabadi et al. 2006; NRC 2006a; Royal Society of Chemistry 2008). Gender disparities also persist in pay, promotion rates, access to certain areas of specialization in research funding and engagement, and key leadership positions. The issue has become one of increasing concern among many nations that frame the underrepresentation of women in chemistry and other science, technology, engineering, and mathematics (STEM) fields as a threat to their country’s global economic competitiveness (Osborn et al. 2000; Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development 2007; Goulden et al. 2009; Pearson and Fechter 1994). In the United States, despite maintaining global leadership in chemistry for some time, increased competition from Germany, the United Kingdom, Spain, Italy, and some Asian countries—all of which are all making more-strategic investments in chemistry research and in training—pose a growing concern for policy-makers and employers (NRC 2006b).

Appendices

Vignette 5.1 Enrollment and Degree Awards in Chemical Engineering

• Sybrina Atwaters &
• Yu Tao 

1. Georgia Institute of Technology, Atlanta, GA, 30032, USA

   Sybrina Atwaters

2. Stevens Institute of Technology, Hoboken, NJ, 07030, USA

   Yu Tao

1.1 5.11 Introduction

Chemistry reflects a broad field with several branches that span into other areas of science, including engineering (see Chap. 5 in this volume). This article explores women’s experiences at the intersection of gender and race/ethnicity within chemical engineering which falls between chemistry, where women have shown major progress (NSF, 2012), and engineering, where women and minorities continue to have extremely low participation (NSF, 2013; Hill et al. 2010).³ Using American Society for Engineering Education (ASEE) and Integrated Postsecondary Education Data System (IPEDS) databases, we examine statistical trends in women’s undergraduate enrollment and degree awards as well as graduate degree awards.⁴

1.2 5.12 Findings

Between 2005 and 2011, the number of women enrolled in chemical engineering at the baccalaureate level increased from 8,035 to 12,308. Yet the percentage of women enrolled declined from 34.5 to 31.7%. The percent of Asian and Hispanic women among chemical engineering baccalaureate enrollment fluctuated by less than 1% during this time period, while the percentage of Black women declined from 3.0 to 1.8% and White women declined from 18.5 to 17.4% (Fig. 5.2).

Fig. 5.2

Percentage women among all baccalaureate enrollment in chemical engineering, by race/ethnicity, 2005–2011

The percentage of women awarded bachelor’s degrees in chemical engineering followed a similar trend as enrollment. While Asian and Hispanic women remained around 5 and 3% of chemical engineering bachelor’s degree recipients, respectively, Black women declined from 3.3 to 1.5% and White women declined from 21.3 to 19.3% (Fig. 5.3).

Fig. 5.3

Percentage women among all bachelor’s degree recipients in chemical engineering, by race/ethnicity, 2005–2011

Among women in chemical engineering, African American’s representation decreased most significantly.⁵ In 2005, African American women comprised 8.6% of all women enrolled in chemical engineering and 8.8% of all degrees awarded to women in chemical engineering at the baccalaureate level (see Figs. 5.4 and 5.5). By 2011, their enrollment among all women declined to 5.8%. Also, African American women decreased to 4.5% of all women awarded bachelor’s degrees in chemical engineering.

Fig. 5.4

Percentage of racial/ethnic groups among all women baccalaureate enrollment in chemical engineering, 2005–2011

Fig. 5.5

Percentage of racial/ethnic groups among all women bachelor’s degree recipients in chemical engineering, 2005–2011

Interestingly, while African American and Hispanic women have lower racial/ethnic representation than their gender counterparts, they have the highest gender representation among their racial/ethnic counterparts. African American women peaked in 2005 with 51.5% (690) of total African American undergraduate chemical engineering enrollment and 57.1% (149) of African American undergraduate chemical engineering degree recipients (Figs. 5.6 and 5.7). In 2005, Hispanic women were 47.6% (981) of all Hispanic undergraduates enrolled in chemical engineering and in 2006 they were 51.0% (172) of all Hispanic undergraduate chemical engineering degree recipients.

Fig. 5.6

Percentage of women baccalaureate enrollment in chemical engineering among each racial/ethnic group, 2005–2011

Fig. 5.7

Percentage of women bachelor’s degree recipients in chemical engineering among each racial/ethnic group, 2005–2011

At the graduate level, the numbers of degrees in chemical engineering awarded to women were much smaller, and the changes over time were not as straightforward as at the baccalaureate level. White women were the largest group in receiving master’s degrees. Nevertheless, their share among all women master’s degree recipients (including temporary residents) decreased from 29.2% (124) in 2005 to 26.3% (93) in 2008, peaked at 31.4% (125) in 2009, and then decreased 25.7% (130) in 2011. Asian women were the second largest group, receiving 7.3% (31) master’s degrees in 2005 and 9.3% (47) in 2011. Black and Hispanic women had similar low shares and both declined over time. However, the drop was greater for Black women (from 5.6 to 3%) than for Hispanic women (from 4.5 to 3.8%) (Fig. 5.8).

Fig. 5.8

Percentage of racial/ethnic groups among all women master’s degree recipients in chemical engineering, 2005–2011

The patterns at the doctoral level were somewhat similar. However, unlike at the master’s level, White women’s representation among all women doctorate recipients increased from 26.8% (55) in 2005 to 32% (90) in 2011. Asian women’s representation increased from 6.3% (13) to 10% (28). Both Black and Hispanic women’s representation remained low—at 2.4% (5) and 3.4% (7), respectively, in 2005 and at 2.5% (7) each in 2011 (Fig. 5.9).

Fig. 5.9

Percentage of racial/ethnic groups among all women doctorate recipients in chemical engineering, 2005–2011

In terms of the representation among their own racial/ethnic groups, the patterns for the four groups somewhat converged at the master’s level. In 2011, White women earned 25.7% of all master’s degrees awarded to all Whites, and Hispanic women accounted for 35.8% of those awarded to all Hispanics (Fig. 5.10). At the doctoral level, the percentages of Black and Hispanic women among their own race/ethnicity declined between 2005 and 2011, from 55.6 to 46.7% and from 35 to 30.4%, respectively. However, the percentages of Asian and White women within their own race/ethnicity increased from 30.2 to 47.5% and 20 to 29.3%, respectively (Fig. 5.11).

Fig. 5.10

Percentage of women master’s degree recipients in chemical engineering among each racial/ethnic group, 2005–2011

Fig. 5.11

Percentage of women doctorate recipients in chemical engineering among each racial/ethnic group, 2005–2011

1.3 5.13 Discussion and Conclusion

Similarities in enrollment and degree trends at the baccalaureate level for all women in chemical engineering suggest that women persist in chemical engineering at consistent rates. However, the low representation of women, especially White, Black, and Hispanic women, supports the need for a renewed emphasis on recruitment of women in chemical engineering. Moreover, the steady decline in enrollment and degree awards trends for African American women across all three cohorts (total, women, and African Americans) suggests the need for more research regarding experiences at the intersection of being African American and female.

The large gap in the numbers of women receiving graduate degrees and those receiving bachelor’s degree could be explained by the fact that the bachelor’s chemical engineering degree is a professional degree (Hanson, 2011a). However, the master’s degree can provide more opportunities, including an increase in salary (Hanson, 2011b). Women’s representation within all races/ethnicities declined from the bachelor’s to the master’s level, which indicates that women were not taking advantage of the master’s degree as much as their male counterparts. However, Black, Hispanic, and White women’s representation relative to their male counterparts were higher at the doctoral level than at the master’s level in over half of the time period. In other words, while the numbers were low, Black, Hispanic, and White women were able to maintain or even increase their representation relative to their male counterparts.

1.4 References

Hanson, David J. 2011a. To a Degree. Chemical and Engineering News 89(11): 52, http://cen.acs.org/articles/89/i11/Degree.html (accessed 9 April 2014).

Hanson, David J. 2011b. Starting Salaries. Chemical and Engineering News 89(11): 49–53, http://cen.acs.org/articles/89/i11/Starting-Salaries.html (accessed 9 April 2014).

Hill, Catherine, Corbett, Christianne, and St. Rose, Andresse. 2010. Why so Few? Women in Science, Technology, Engineering, and Mathematics. Washington, DC: American Association of University Women.

National Science Foundation. 2012. Science and Engineering Indicators (NSB 12-01). Arlington, VA: National Science Foundation.

National Science Foundation/National Center for Science and Engineering Statistics. 2013. Women, Minorities, and Persons with Disabilities in Science and Engineering: 2013. Special Report NSF 13-304. Arlington, VA, http://www.nsf.gov/statistics/wmpd/ (accessed 7 April 2014).

Vignette 5.2 Science Activities in Taiwan

• Chia-Li Wu 

1. Department of Chemistry, Tamkang University, New Taipei City, Taiwan

   Chia-Li Wu

Activities sponsored or partly sponsored by Projects on Mainstreaming of Gender in Science and Technology (2011–2013)

The Projects on Mainstreaming of Gender in Science and Technology, together with the Chemical Society of Taiwan and the National Science Council of Taiwan, have offered a number of activities directed to attracting youngsters—and especially young girls—into the chemical sciences. For example:

2.1 5.14 Chemistry Papago (“Chemistry Down the Road”)

A van loaded with simple chemicals and posters drives around the island, particularly to rural areas, including isolated small islands. Usually, remaining for 4 h at each stop, youngsters see a chemistry magic show, carry out hands-on experiments, and take part in games that require scientific thinking.

2.2 5.15 Science Camps for Junior High School Students

During summer vacations, an average of 50 students, half of whom are girls, spend 3 days and 2 nights in the dormitories of Tamkang University, in which they listen to lectures and carry out experiments that illustrate the role of science in everyday life. Two such camps are held each summer. At least half of the lecturers are female scientists in order to provide more role models for the youngsters. The campers are also shown a short film on gender respect, followed by discussions hosted by gender experts.

2.3 5.16 Science Camps for High School Students

For 1–2 days on weekends during the semester, or 2–3 days during winter/summer vacations, students largely from girls’ high schools listen to lectures and carry out chemistry and physics experiments. As with the science camps for junior high school students, at least half of the lecturers are female scientists who serve as role models for the participants. Similarly, students are shown a short film on gender respect and participate in discussions hosted by a gender expert. The camps may be in their own schools or at one of the universities.

2.4 5.17 Gender and Science Summer/Winter Camps

Directed mainly to female college and graduate students from STEM fields (although a few other fields are also included), participants spend 3 days in a scenic area to take part in discussions that focus on gender aspects in science.