Abstract
Sundarban, the single largest contiguous area of mangroves in the delta of Ganga, Brahmaputra and Meghna, is shared between India and Bangladesh. The landscape consists of a network of tidal creeks, waterways, marshes and pools, low and high mangroves, strands of grasses and islands which disappear and reappear twice a day with the tides. Like other mangroves, the Sundarban has enormous ecological value as it stabilizes the coastline and protects against cyclonic storms, hosts very rich biodiversity, supplies forest products, hosts and supports coastal and near-shore fisheries, sequesters carbon disproportionate to its areal extent and serves the ecotourism. Sundarban is the only mangrove habitat of tigers, an endangered species.
Sundarban was declared as a reserve forest by the British in the mid 1800s for the sake of resource exploitation. However, after independence, India established three wildlife sanctuaries that were later merged into a national park. In late 1970s, Bangladesh also set up wildlife sanctuaries in its part of Sundarban. The entire Indian part of Sundarban has now been designated as a biosphere reserve whereas some parts in both India and Bangladesh were also inscribed on the World Heritage list in 1987 and 1997 respectively.
Despite the conservation status, the Sundarban mangroves are increasingly impacted by various land use and water management practices throughout the GBM basin through a complex interaction between hydrology, salinity and sediments. Hydrological alterations caused by the Farakka barrage affect the salinity gradients, transport of sediments, nutrients and pollutants, and accretion-erosion dynamics. Consequently, these changes impact the biodiversity, productivity, agriculture and people and their livelihoods. The projected climate change-induced sea level rise is another major threat looming large over the Sundarban.
While our understanding of the functioning of the Sundarban mangrove ecosystems remains poor and influenced by terrestrial approaches, their future depends upon the management of land and water resources throughout the Ganga-Brahmaputra basin, that in turn requires an integrated river-basin-wide appropriate strategy backed by political will.
Access this chapter
Tax calculation will be finalised at checkout
Purchases are for personal use only
Similar content being viewed by others
References
Giri C, Pengra B, Zhu Z, Singh A, Tieszen LL (2007) Monitoring mangrove forest dynamics of the Sundarbans in Bangladesh and India using multi-temporal satellite data from 1973 to 2000. Estuar Coast Shelf Sci 73:91–100
Giri C, Ochieng E, Tieszen LL, Zhu Z, Singh A, Loveland A, Masek J, Duke N (2010) Status and distribution of mangrove forests of the world using earth observation satellite data. Global Ecol Biogeogr 20(1):154–159, January 2011 (Article first published online: 17 Aug 2010)
Ellison AM, Farnsworth EJ, Merkt RE (1999) Origins of mangrove ecosystems and the mangrove biodiversity anomaly. Glob Ecol Biogeogr 8:95–115
Gopal B, Chauhan M (2006) Biodiversity and its conservation in the Sundarban Mangrove Ecosystem. Aquat Sci 68:338–354
Chaudhuri AB, Choudhury A (1994) Mangroves of the Sundarbans, vol. 1: India. World Conservation Union, Gland, p 247
Guha Bakshi DN, Sanyal P, Naskar KR (eds) (1999) Sundarbans Mangal. Naya Prokash, Calcutta, p 771
Hussain Z, Acharya G (1994) Mangroves of the Sundarbans, vol 2: Bangladesh. (ed) World Conservation Union, Gland, p 257
Islam MS, Wahab MA (2005) A review of the present status and management of mangrove wetland habitat resources in Bangladesh with emphasis on mangrove fisheries and aquaculture. Hydrobiologia 542:165–190
IUCN-BD (2002a) Molluskan Biodiversity of Sundarban – final report. IUCN-Bangladesh, Dhaka
IUCN-BD (2002b) Draft Report on the Orchid and Lichen of the Sundarbans. IUCN-Bangladesh, Dhaka
IUCN-BD (2002c) Draft interim report on Ornithological Study of Sundarban, IUCN-Bangladesh, Dhaka
Naskar KR, Guha Bakshi DN (1987) Mangrove swamps of the Sundarbans: an ecological perspective. Naya Prokash, Calcutta, p 263
Seidensticker J, Kurin R, Townsend AK (eds) (1991) The commons in South Asia: societal pressures and environmental integrity in the Sundarbans of Bangladesh. Proceedings from a workshop held 20–21 November 1987 in Washington, DC. The International Center Smithsonian Institution, Washington, DC
Anonymous (2009) In-depth recovery needs assessment of cyclone Aila affected areas. Report by Action Aid, Concern World Wide, Dan Church Aid, Muslim Aid, Islamic Relief, Oxfam-GB and Save the Children-UK, p 36. http://www.lcgbangladesh.org/DERweb/Needs%20Assessment/Reports/In-depth%20Recovery%20Needs%20Assessment%20of%20Cyclone%20Aila%20Affected%20Areas_ECHO%20funded.pdf
Mukherjee R (2011) Introduction: Bengal and the Northern Bay of Bengal. In: Mukherjee R (ed) Pelagic pathways: the northern Bay of Bengal before colonialism. Primus Books, New Delhi, pp 1–262
Eaton RC (1993) The rise of Islam and the Bengal Frontier: 1204–1760. University of California Press, Berkeley, 310
O’Malley LSS (1914) The Bengal District Gazeeteers: 24 Parganas. Govt. of West Bengal. Reprinted from the original in 1998 and 2009. Logos Press, New Delhi, p 268
Sarkar SC (2010) The Sundarbans: folk deities, Monstors and Mortals. Social Science Press, 69 Jor Bagh, and Orient Blackswan, New Delhi, p 205
Ray R, Chakraborty I, Bhattacharyya N (2002) A study among some “Meendharas” of Sundarbans, West Bengal. Anthropologist Special Issue No. 1: 83–89
Islam SN, Gnauck A (2008) Mangrove wetland ecosystems in Ganges-Brahmaputra delta in Bangladesh. Front. Earth Sci China 2(4):439–448
Hunter WW (1877) A statistical account of Bengal – vol 4: Districts of Bardwan, Bankura and Birbhum. Trubner & Co., London, 468
Jha VC, Bairagya HP (2011) Flood plain evaluation in the Ganga-Brahmaputra delta: a Tectonic review. Ethiopian J Environ Stud Manage 4(3):12–24
Rahman N Billah MM, Chaudhury MU (1979) Prepoaration of an up to date map of Sundarban forests and estimation of forest areas of the same by using Landsat imageries. Second Bangladesh National Seminar on Remote Sensing (9–15 Dec), Dhaka
Sanyal P (1983) Mangrove tiger land: the Sundarbans of India. Tigerpaper 10(3):1–4
Alam M (1996) Subsidence of the Ganges–Brahmaputra delta of Bangladesh and associated drainage, sedimentation and salinity problems, Chapter-8, Sea-level rise and coastal subsidence; causes, consequences, and strategies. Kluwer Academic, Dordrecht, pp 169–192
Goodbred SL Jr, Kuehl SA (1999) Holocene and modern sediment budgets for the Ganges-Brahmaputra river system: evidence for highstand dispersal to flood-plain, shelf, and deep-sea depocenters. Geology 27(6):559–562
Goodbred SL Jr, Kuehl SA (2000) The significance of large sediment supply, active tectonism, and eustasy on margin sequence development: Late Quaternary stratigraphy and evolution of the Ganges–Brahmaputra delta. Sediment Geol 133:227–248
Bowman HHM (1917) Ecology and physiology of the red Mangrove. Proc Am Philos Soc 56(7):589–672
Davis JH (1940) The ecology and geologic role of Mangroves in Florida. Publications of the Carnegie Institution of Washington, No 517, pp 303–412
Ellison AM, Stoddart DR (1991) Mangrove ecosystem collapse during predicted sea level rise: holocene analogues and implications. J Coast Res 7:151–165
Biswas H, Dey M, Ganguly D, De TK, Ghosh S, Jana TK (2010) Comparative analysis of phytoplankton composition and abundance over a two-decade period at the land-ocean boundary of a tropical Mangrove ecosystem. Estuaries Coasts 33:384–394
Manna S, Chaudhuri K, Bhattacharyya S, Bhattacharyya M (2010) Dynamics of Sundarban estuarine ecosystem: Eutrophication induced threat to mangroves. Saline Syst 6:8. http://www.salinesystems.org/content/6/1/8
Mitra A, Banerjee K, Bhattacharaya DP (2004) In: The other face of mangroves. Published by the Department of Environment, Government of West Bengal, India
Mukherjee BB (1984) Mangrove forest types and their distribution in Sundarbans, India. In: Proceedings of the Asian symposium on Mangrove environment – research and management, p 7581
Sodhi NS, Brook BW, Bradshaw CJA (2007) Tropical conservation biology. Blackwell Publishing, Oxford, p 332
Jhingran VG (1977) Fish and fisheries of India. Hindustan Publication, New Delhi, Ch Xv, p 954
Chandra G, Sagar RL (2003) Fisheries in the Sundarbans: problems and prospects. zunia.org/post/fishery-in-sundarbans-problems-and-prospects
Ray S (2008) Comparative study of virgin and reclaimed islands of Sundarbanmangrove ecosystem through network analysis. Ecol Modell 215(1–3):207–216
Gundermann N, Popper DM (1984) Notes on the Indo-Pacific mangal fishes and on mangrove related fisheries. In: Por D, Dor I (eds) Hydrobiology of the Mangal. Dr. W. Junk, The Hague, pp 201–206
Lowe-McConnell RH (1987) Ecological studies in tropical fish communities. Cambridge University Press, Cambridge
Chaudhuri A, Mukherjee S, Sen S, Chakrabarty S, Homechaudhuri S (2012) A comparison of spatial and temporal pattern of fish diversity of Matla river and adjacent mudflats in Sunderban biosphere reserve, India. Clarion-Int Multidisciplinary J 1:46–55
Ram ASP, Shanta N, Chandramohan D (2003) Seasonal shift in net ecosystem production in a tropical estuary. Limnol Oceanogr 48(4):1601–1607
Gupta GVM, Thottathil SD, Balachandran KK, Madhu NV, Madeswaran P, Nair S (2009) CO2 supersaturation and net heterotrophy in a tropical estuary (Cochin, India): influence of anthropogenic effect. Ecosystems 12(12):1145–1157, http://www.wildbengal.com/urls/con_ar_sunderban.htm
Mukhopadhyay SK, Biswas H, De TK, Jana TK (2006) Fluxes of nutrients from the tropical river Hooghly at the land-ocean boundary of Sundarbans, North-east coast of Bay of Bengal, India. J Mar Syst 62:9–21
Gle C, Del Amo Y, Sautour B, Laborde P, Chardy P (2008) Variability of nutrients and phytoplankton primary production in a shallow macrotidal coastal ecosystem (Arcachon Bay, France). Estuar Coast Shelf Sci 76:642–656
Jie X, Kedong Y, Lei H, Xiangcheng Y, Ho Alvin YT, Harrison PJ (2008) Phosphorus limitation in the northern South China Sea during late summer: influence of the Pearl River. Deep Sea Res Part I: Oceanogr Res Pap 55:1330–1342. doi:10.1016/j.dsr.2008.05.007
Dasgupta S, Huq M, Khan ZH, Ahmed MMZ, Mukherjee N, Khan MF, Pandey KD (2010a) Vulnerability of Bangladesh to cyclones in a changing climate: Potential damages and adaptation cost. World Bank – Development Research Group (DECRG). World Bank Policy Research Working Paper No 5280. World Bank, Washington, DC
Khalil GM (1992) Cyclones and storm surges in Bangladesh: some mitigative measures. Nat Hazards 6(4):11–24
Murty TS, Flather RA (1994) Impact of storm surges in the Bay of Bengal. J Coastal Res, Special Issue No 12: Coastal Hazards, 149(161)
Islam T, Peterson RE (2009) Climatology of landfalling tropical cyclones in Bangladesh 1877–2003. Nat Hazards 48:115–135
Dube SK, Chittibabu P, Sinha PC, Rao AD, Murty TS (2004) Numerical modelling of storm surge in the head Bay of Bengal using location specific model. Nat Hazards 31:437–453
Mitra A, Halder P, Banerjee K (2011, February) Changes of selected hydrological parameters in Hooghly estuary in esponse to a severe tropical cyclone (Aila). Indian J Geo-Mar Sci 40(1):32–36
Mitra A, Mondal K, Banerjee K (2011) Spatial and tidal variations of physico-chemical parameters in the lower Gangetic delta region, West Bengal, India. J Spatial Hydrol 11(1, Spring):52–69
Murthy VSN, Rao DP, Sastry JS (1983) The lowering of sea surface temperature in the east central Arabian Sea associated with a cyclone. Mahasagar – Bull Natl Inst Oceonogr 16:67–71
Subrahmanyam B, Rao KH, Rao SN, Murty VSN, Ryan SJ (2002) Influence of a tropical cyclone on Chlorophyll-a concentration in the Arabian Sea. Geophys Res Lett 29(22):1–4
Shah MAR, Datta DK (2010) A quantitative analysis of Mangrove forest resource utilization by the dependent livelihoods. UNESCO-IHE, Delft
Mukherjee M, Roy Choudhury M, Tripathi R (2007) Fishers, fishery and gears in Sundarban wetlands. In: Mukherjee M (ed) Sundarbans wetlands, pp 115–131. Dept. of Fisheries, Aquaculture, Aquatic Resources and Fishing Harbours: Govt. of West Bengal
Vannucci M (1997) Supporting appropriate mangrove management. International Newsletter of Coastal Management. Intercoast Netw Spec Edn 1:1–3
Duarte CM, Middelburg JJ, Caraco N (2005) Major role of marine vegetation on the oceanic carbon cycle. Biogeoscience 2:1–8
Alongi DM (2012) Carbon sequestration in mangrove forests. Carbon Manage 3(3):313–322
Clough BF, Ong JE, Gong WK (1997) Estimating leaf area index and photosynthetic production in canopies of the mangrove Rhizophora apiculanta. Mar Ecol Prog Ser 159:285–292
Fromard F, Puig C, Mougin E et al (1998) Structure, above-ground biomass and dynamics of mangrove ecosystems: new data from French Guiana. Oecologia 115:39–53
Alongi DM (2009) The energetics of mangrove forests. Springer, Amsterdam
Berger U, Adams M, Grimm V (2006) Modelling secondary succession of subtropical mangroves: causes and consequences of growth reduction in pioneer species. Pers Plant Ecol Evol Syst 7:243–252
Ray R, Ganguly DC, Chowdhury M, Dey S, Das MK, Dutta SK, Mandal N, Majumder TK, Mukhopadhyay SK De, Jana TK (2011) Carbon sequestration and annual increase of carbon stock in a mangrove forest. Atmos Environ 45:5016–5024
Seidensticker J (1991) The Bangladesh Sundarbans as wildlife habitat: a look ahead. In: Seidensticker J, Kurin R, Townsend AK (eds) The commons in South Asia: societal pressures and environmental integrity in the Sundarbans of Bangladesh. Smithsonian Institution, Washington, DC, pp 180–194 + tables
IUCN (1997) Sundarban Wildslife Sactuaries (Bangladesh): World Heritage Nomination – IUCN Technical Evaluation. http://whc.unesco.org/archive/advisory_body_evaluation/798.pdf, p 12
Mukul SA (2007) Biodiversity conservation strategies in Bangladesh: the state of protected areas. Tiger Paper 34(3):28–31
Rahman LM (2000) The Sundarbans: a unique wilderness of the world. In: USDA Forest Service Proceedings Rocky Mountain Research Station, Fort Collins, CO, issue 15, vol. 2: 143–148
Mukul SA, Uddin MB, Uddin MS, Khan MASA, Marzan B (2008) Protected areas of Bangladesh: current status and efficacy or biodiversity conservation. Proc Pak Acad Sci 45(2):59–68
Choudhury JK (2002) Bangladesh country paper on National Forest Policy Review. Country report to the 19th session of the Asia-Pacific Forestry Commission. Ulaanbaatar, Mongolia
Mitra R, Bhattaharaya RN, Hazra S, Santra SC (2006) Mangrove conservation efforts and the local economy: a case study. Econ Polit Weekly 41(33):3612–3616
Oag TM (1939) Report on the River Hooghly and its headwaters. Commissioner for the port of Calcutta, Calcutta
Hughes CE, Binning P, Willgoose GR (1998) Characterisation of the hydrology of an estuarine wetland. J Hydrol 211(1–4):34–49
Mitra A, Banerjee K, Sengupta K, Gangopadhyay A (2009) Pulse of climate change in Indian Sundarbans: a myth or reality. Natl Acad Sci Lett 32(1&2):1–7
Salman MA, Uprety K (2002) Conflict and cooperation on South Asia’s international rivers: a legal perspective. In: The International and National Water Law and Policy Series, Kluwer Law International, p 399
Vass KK, Manas KD, Tyagi RK, Katiha PK, Samanta S, Shrivastava NP, Bhattacharjya BK, Suresh VR, Pathak V, Chandra G, Debnath D, Gopal B (2011) Strategies for sustainable fisheries in the Indian part of the Ganga-Brahmaputra river basins. Int J Ecol Environ Sci 37(4):157–218
Ghosh T, Bhandari B, Hazra S (2003) Application of a bio-engineering technique to protect Ghoramara island (Bay of Bengal) from severe erosion. J Coast Conserv 9(2):171–178
Ali S (2005) Sea level rise and possible solutions to land loss in Bangladesh. Thesis Submitted to the Geology department, Oberlin College, Oberlin, OH, U.S.A.
Doyle T, Chaturvedi S (2011) Climate refugees and security: conceptualizations, categories and contestations. In: Dryzek JS, Norgaard RB, Schlosberg D (eds) The Oxford handbook of climate change and society. Oxford University Press, Oxford, pp 278–290
Ghosh T, Bhandari B, Hazra S (2001) Assessment of landuse/landcover dynamics and shoreline changes of Sagar Island through remote sensing. Paper presented at the 22nd Asian conference on remote sensing, 5–9 November, 2001, Singapore. http://www.a-a-r-s.org/acrs/proceeding/ACRS2001/PapersF/172HAZRA.pdf
Hazra S, Tuhin G, Dasgupta R, Gautam S (2002) Sea level and associated changes in the Sundarbans. Sci Cult 68:309–321, By Indian Science New Association, Calcutta
Kumar PKD, Gopinath G, Laluraj CM, Seralathan P, Mitra D (2007) Change detection studies of Sagar Island, India, using Indian Remote Sensing Satellite 1C linear imaging self-scan sensor III data. J Coast Res 23(6):1498–1502
Bhattacharjee TT, Chatterjee S, Verya B, Dutta D, Choudhury N (2011) The sinking “beauty” – Sundarbans. Paper presented at the Geo-Spatial World Form under the theme: Directions and DIrmension of the Geo-spatial Industry, pp 18–21. http://www.geospatialworldforum.org/2011/proceeding/pdf/tapaleena.pdf
Richards JF, Flint EP (1988) World deforestation in the twentieth century. Duke University Press, Durham
Dijksma R, Van Loon AF, Te Brake B, Van Huijgevoort MHJ (2010) Mangrove rehabilitation under climate change: towards a hydrological tool for quantifying the effect of expected sea level rise on mangroves. (Paper to Delta 2011 Conference) http://webdocs.alterra.wur.nl/internet/corporate/nieuws/abstract_Dijksma_delta2011.pdf
Dijksma R, Van Loon AF, Van Mensvoort MEF, Van Huijgevoort MHJ, Te Brake B (2010) An extended hydrological classification for mangrove rehabilitation projects; a case study in Vietnam. In: Tropical deltas and coastal zones; food production, communities and environment at the land-water interface. Cabi, ISBN 978-1-84593-618-1, p 475
Kairo JG, Dahdouh-Guebas F, Bosire JO, Koedam N (2001) Restoration and management of mangrove systems: a lesson for and from the East African region. South Afr J Bot Pretoria 67(3):383–389
De Leon TOD, White AT (1999) Mangrove rehabilitation in the Philippines. In: Streever W (ed) An international perspective on wetland rehabilitation. Kluwer Academic, Dordrecht
Lewis RR (2005) Ecological engineering for successful management and restoration of mangrove forests. Ecol Eng 24:403–418, Elsevier Science
Sanyal P (1998) Rehabilitation of degraded mangrove forests of the Sundarbans of India. In: Program of the international workshop on rehabilitation of degraded coastal systems, pp 25. Phuket Marine Biological Center, 19–24 January 1998. Phuket
Lewis RR (2001) Mangrove restoration – costs and benefits of successful ecological restoration. In review, Proceedings of the Mangrove valuation workshop Universiti Sains Malaysia, Penang, 4–8 April 2001. Beijer International Institute of Ecological Economics, Stockholm, Sweden
Mahapatra BK, Chatterjee P, Saha D, Datta NC (1999) Declining trend in the abundance of seeds of tiger shrimp, Panaeus monodon (fabricus) in the Sundarbans with suggestions for its restoration. In: Guhabakshi DN, Sanyal P, Naskar KR (eds), Sundarbans Mangal. Naya Prokash, Calcutta, pp 532–538
Biswas SR (2003) Invasive plants of Sundarbans. In: Interim report under SBCP project, IUCN Bangladesh, p 34
Biswas SR, Choudhury JK, Nishat A, Rahman MM (2007) Do invasive plants threaten the Sundarbans mangrove forest of Bangladesh. For Ecol Manage 245:1–9
Dasgupta S, Huq M, Khan ZH, Masud MS, Ahmed MMZ, Mukherjee N, Pandey K (2010b) Climate proofing infrastructure in Bangladesh: the incremental cost of limiting future inland monsoon flood damage. The World Bank Development Research Group, Environment and Energy Team, WB Policy Research Working Paper 5469, p 32
Author information
Authors and Affiliations
Corresponding author
Editor information
Editors and Affiliations
Rights and permissions
Copyright information
© 2014 Springer International Publishing Switzerland
About this chapter
Cite this chapter
Chauhan, M., Gopal, B. (2014). Sundarban Mangroves: Impact of Water Management in the Ganga River Basin. In: Sanghi, R. (eds) Our National River Ganga. Springer, Cham. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-319-00530-0_5
Download citation
DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-319-00530-0_5
Published:
Publisher Name: Springer, Cham
Print ISBN: 978-3-319-00529-4
Online ISBN: 978-3-319-00530-0
eBook Packages: Earth and Environmental ScienceEarth and Environmental Science (R0)