Abstract
The orbit and ocular adnexa are important sites for primary and secondary orbital diseases. All tissue types including bone, vascular, neural, muscular, and glandular tissues may be involved with specific pathologies. Tumors or inflammations can secondarily invade the orbit from periorbital regions such as the paranasal sinuses, eyelids, and intracranial compartment. The volume of the orbit is small and confined by bony walls on all sides except anteriorly, and within this space, numerous structures subserve visual functions. It is not surprising, therefore, that ophthalmic symptoms are common presenting findings with most orbital diseases. In this chapter, we will restrict our discussion to benign and malignant tumors and to some of the more common nonneoplastic lesions.
This is a preview of subscription content, log in via an institution to check access.
Access this chapter
Tax calculation will be finalised at checkout
Purchases are for personal use only
Suggested Reading
Introduction
Armington WG, Bilaniuk LT. The radiologic evaluation of the orbit: conal and intraconal lesions. Semin Ultrasound CT MRI. 1988;9:455–73.
Avery G, Tang RA, Close LG. Ophthalmic manifestations of mucoceles. Ann Ophthalmol. 1983;15:734–7.
Bilaniuk LT. Vascular lesions of the orbit in children. Neuroimaging Clin N Am. 2005;15:107–20.
Buckmiller LM. Update on hemangiomas and vascular malformations. Curr Opin Otolaryngol Head Neck Surg. 2004;12:476–87.
Cantore WA. Neural orbital tumors. Curr Opin Ophthalmol. 2000;11:367–71.
Coupland SE. Lymphoproliferative lesions of the ocular adnexa. Differential diagnostic guidelines. Ophthalmologe. 2004;101:197–215.
Crawford JS. Diseases of the orbit. In: Toronto Hospital for Sick Children, Department of Ophthalmology, editor. The eye in childhood. Chicago: Year Book; 1967.
Della Rocca RC, Roen J, Labay JR, et al. Isolated neurofibroma of the orbit. Ophthalmic Surg. 1985;16:634–8.
DePotter P, Shields JA, Shields CL. MRI of the eye and orbit. Philadelphia: J.B. Lippincott; 1995. p. 3–17.
Dortzbach RK, Kronish JW, Gentry LR. Magnetic resonance imaging of the orbit. Part II. Clinical applications. Ophthal Plast Reconstr Surg. 1989;5:160–70.
Dutton JJ. Radiographic evaluation of the orbit. In: Doxanas MT, Anderson RL, editors. Clinical orbital anatomy. Baltimore: Williams & Wilkins; 1984. p. 35–56.
Dutton JJ. Gliomas of the anterior visual pathways. Surv Ophthalmol. 1993;38:427–52.
Dutton JJ. Atlas of clinical and surgical orbital anatomy. Philadelphia: W.B. Saunders; 1994. p. 201–32.
Dutton JJ. Optic nerve sheath meningiomas. Surv Ophthalmol. 1994;37:167–83.
Dutton JJ. Radiology of the orbit and visual pathways. London: Saunders, Elsevier; 2010. 408 pp.
Dutton JJ, Byrne SF, Proia AD. Diagnostic atlas of orbital diseases. Philadelphia: W.B. Saunders; 2000.
Dutton JJ, Tawfik HA, DeBacker CM, Lipham WJ, et al. Multiple recurrences in malignant peripheral nerve sheath tumor of the orbit: a case report and a review of the literature. Ophthal Plast Reconstr Surg. 2001;17:293–9.
Ellis JH, Banks PM, Campbell RJ, et al. Lymphoid tumors of the ocular adnexa. Clinical correlation with the working formulation, classification and immunoperoxidase staining of paraffin sections. Ophthalmology. 1985;92:1311–24.
Ferry AP, Font RL. Carcinoma metastatic to the eye and orbit. I. A clinicopathologic study of 227 cases. Arch Ophthalmol. 1974;92:276–86.
Font RL, Gamel JW. Epithelial tumors of the lacrimal gland: an analysis of 265 cases. In: Jakobiec FA, editor. Ocular and adnexal tumors. Birmingham: Aesculapius; 1978.
Font RL, Gamel JW. Adenoid cystic carcinoma of the lacrimal gland. A clinicopathologic study of 79 cases. In: Nicholson DH, editor. Ocular pathology update. New York: Masson; 1980. p. 277–83.
Font RL, Hidayat AA. Fibrous histiocytoma of the orbit. A clinicopathologic study of 150 cases. Hum Pathol. 1982;13:199–209.
Forbes G. Vascular lesions of the orbit. Neuroimaging Clin N Am. 1996;6:113–22.
Forrest AW. Intraorbital tumors. Arch Ophthalmol. 1942;41:198–232.
Forrest AW. Lacrimal gland tumors. In: Jones IS, Jakobiec FA, editors. Diseases of the orbit. Hagerstown: Harper and Row; 1979. p. 355.
Gordon LK. Diagnostic dilemmas in orbital inflammatory disease. Ocul Immunol Inflamm. 2003;11:2–15.
Harold Lee HB, Garrity JA, Cameron JD, Strianese D, Bonavolonta G, Patrinely JR. Primary optic nerve sheath meningioma in children. Surv Ophthalmol. 2008;53:543–58.
Harris GJ. Orbital vascular malformations: a consensus statement on terminology and its clinical implications. Orbital Society. Am J Ophthalmol. 1999;127:453–5.
Hart WM. Metastatic carcinoma to the eye and orbit. In: Zimmerman LE, editor. Tumors of the eye and adnexa, Int Ophthalmol Clin, vol. 2; 1962. p. 465–82.
Henderson JW, Farrow GM. Orbital tumors. 2nd ed. New York: Brian C. Decker (Thieme-Stratton); 1980. p. 67–74.
Iliff CE, Ossofsky HJ. Tumors of the orbit. Trans Am Ophthalmol Soc. 1957;55:505–41.
Ingalis RG. Tumors of the orbit and allied pseudo tumors. Charles C. Thomas: Springfield; 1953.
Jakobiec FA, Jones IS. Vascular tumors, malformations and degenerations. In: Jones IS, Jakobiec FA, editors. Diseases of the orbit. Hagerstown: Harper & Row; 1979. p. 269–308.
Jakobiec FA, Iwamoto T, Knowles DM II. Ocular adnexal lymphoid tumors. Correlative ultrastructural and immunologic marker studies. Arch Ophthalmol. 1982;100:84–98.
Karcioglu ZA, Hadjistilianou D, Rozans M, DeFrancesco S. Orbital rhabdomyosarcoma. Cancer Control. 2004;11:328–33.
Kennedy RE. An evaluation of 820 orbital cases. Trans Am Ophthalmol Soc. 1984;82:134–57.
Kincaid MC, Green WR. Ocular and orbital involvement in leukemia. Surv Ophthalmol. 1983;27:211–32.
Knowles DM II, Jakobiec FA. Ocular adnexal lymphoid neoplasms: clinical, histopathologic, electron microscopic, and immunologic characteristics. Hum Pathol. 1982;13:148–62.
Konrad GB, Thiel HJ. Schwannoma of the orbit. Ophthalmologica. 1984;188:118–27.
Korbin EA, Blodi FC, Weingeist TA. Ocular and orbital manifestations of neurofibromatosis. Surv Ophthalmol. 1984;188:118–27.
Lee AG. Neuroophthalmological management of optic pathway gliomas. Neurosurg Focus. 2007;23:E1.
MacCarty CS, Brown DN. Orbital tumors in children. Clin Neurosurg. 1964;11:76–93.
Mafee MF, Putterman A, Valvassori GE, Campos M, Capek V. Orbital space-occupying lesions: role of computed tomography and magnetic resonance imaging. Radiol Clin N Am. 1987;25:529–59.
Meekins B, Dutton JJ, Proia AD. Primary orbital leiomyosarcoma: a case report and review of the literature. Arch Ophthalmol. 1988;106:82–6.
Mortada A. Fibroma of the orbit. Br J Ophthalmol. 1971;55:350–2.
Moss MH. Expanding lesions of the orbit: a clinical study of 230 consecutive cases. Am J Ophthalmol. 1962;54:761–70.
Porterfleld JF. Orbital tumors in children: a report on 214 cases. Int Ophthalmol Clin. 1962;2:319–35.
Reese AB. Expanding lesions of the orbit. Trans Ophthalmol Soc UK. 1971;91:85–104.
Rootman J, Goldberg C, Robertson W. Primary orbital schwannomas. Br J Ophthalmol. 1982;66:194–204.
Rootman J, Hay E, Graebo D, et al. Orbital-adnexal lymphangiomas: a spectrum of hemodynamically isolated vascular hamartomas. Ophthalmology. 1986;93:1558–70.
Rootman J. Vascular malformations of the orbit: hemodynamic concepts. Orbit. 2003;22:103–20.
Rootman J. Diseases of the orbit. A multidisciplinary approach. Philadelphia: J.B. Lippincott; 1988.
Sherman RP, Rootman J, LaPointe JS. Orbital dermoids: clinical presentation and management. Br J Ophthalmol. 1986;101:726–9.
Shields JA. Rhabdomyosarcoma of the orbit. In: Hornblass A, editor. Ophthalmic plastic and reconstructive surgery. Baltimore: Wiliams & Wilkins; 1987.
Shields JA. Diagnosis and management of orbital tumors. Philadelphia: W.B. Saunders; 1989. p. 89–122.
Shields JA, Shields CL. Orbital cysts of childhood – classification, clinical features, and management. Surv Ophthalmol. 2004;49:281–99.
Shields JA, Bakewell B, Augsburger JJ, et al. Classification and incidence of space-occupying lesions of the orbit. A survey of 645 biopsies. Arch Ophthalmol. 1984;102:1606–11.
Shields JA, Bakewell B, Augsburger JJ, et al. Space-occupying orbital masses in children: a review of 250 consecutive biopsies. Ophthalmology. 1986;93:379–84.
Shields JA, Shields CL, Eagle RC, et al. Pleomorphic adenoma (“benign mixed tumor”) of the lacrimal gland. Arch Ophthalmol. 1987;105:560–1.
Shields CL, Shields JA, Peggs M. Metastatic tumors to the orbit. Ophthalmic Reconstr Plast Surg. 1988;4:73–80.
Shields JA, Shields CL, Scartozzi R. Survey of 1264 patients with orbital tumors and simulating lesions: the 2002 Montgomery Lecture, part I. Ophthalmology. 2004;111:997–1008.
Smoker WR, Gentry LR, Yee NK, Reede DL, Nerad JA. Vascular lesions of the orbit: more than meets the eye. Radiographics. 2008;28:185–204.
Zimmerman LA, Sanders TE, Ackerman LV. Epithelial tumors of the lacrimal gland: prognostic and therapeutic significance of histologic types. Int Ophthalmol Clin. 1962;2:337–67.
Cystic Lesions: Dermoid Cyst
Bartlett SP, Lin KY, Kilowatts J. The surgical management of orbit facial dermoids in the pediatric patient. Plast Reconstr Surg. 1993;91:1208–15.
Blei L, Chambers JT, Liotta LA, Di Chiro G. Orbital dermoid diagnosed by computed tomographic scanning. Am J Ophthalmol. 1978;85:58–61.
Bonavolonta G, Tranfa F, de Conciliis C, Strainers D. Dermoid cysts: 16-year survey. Ophthal Plast Reconstr Surg. 1995;11:187–92.
Chawda SJ, Moseley IF. Computed tomography of orbital dermoids. A 20 year review. Clin Radiol. 1999;54:821–5.
Colombo F, Holback LM, Naumann GO. Chronic inflammation in dermoid cysts: a clinicopathologic study of 115 patients. Orbit. 2000;19(2):97–107.
De Potter P, Flanders AE, Shields CL, Shields JA. Magnetic resonance imaging of orbital tumors. Int Ophthalmol Clin. 1993;33:163–73.
Emerick GT, Shields CL, Shields JA, et al. Chewing-induced visual impairment from a dumbbell dermoid cyst. Ophthal Plast Reconstr Surg. 1997;13:57–61.
Grove AS Jr. Giant dermoid cysts of the orbit. Ophthalmology. 1979;86:1513–20.
Howard GR, Nerad JA, Bonavolonta G, Tranfa F. Orbital dermoid cysts located within the lateral rectus muscle. Ophthalmology. 1994;101:767–71.
Kersten RC. The eyelid crease approach to superficial lateral dermoid cysts. J Pediatr Ophthalmol Strabismus. 1988;25:48–51.
Kiratli H, Bilgic S, Tezel GG. Dermoid cyst of the lacrimal gland. Orbit. 2005;24(2):145–8.
Lane CM, Erhich WW, Wright JE. Orbital dermoid cyst. Eye. 1987;1:504–11.
Leonardo D, Shields CL, Shields JA, Nelson LB. Recurrent giant orbital dermoid of infancy. J Pediatr Ophthalmol Strabismus. 1994;31:50–2.
McCollough ML, Glover AT, Grabski WJ, Berger TG. Orbital dermoid cysts showing conjunctival epithelium. Am J Dermatopathol. 1991;13:611–5.
Meyer DR, Lessner AM, Yeatts RP, et al. Primary temporal fossa dermoid cysts. Characterization and surgical management. Ophthalmology. 1999;106:342–9.
Nevrekar D, Abdu E, Selden NR. Craniectomy for a bilobed dermoid cyst in the temporal fossa and greater wing of sphenoid bone. Pediatr Neurosurg. 2009;45:46–8.
Nugent RA, Lapointe JS, Rootman J, Robertson WD, Graeb DA. Orbital dermoids: features on CT. Radiology. 1987;165:475–8.
Pollard ZF, Harley RD, Calhoun J. Dermoid cysts in children. Pediatrics. 1976;57:379–82.
Sagoo MS, Shields CL, Marr BP, Eagle RC Jr, Shields JA. Orbital conjunctival dermoid cyst with oncocytic differentiation. Ophthal Plast Reconstr Surg. 2008;24(1):69–71.
Samuleson TW, Margo CE, Levy MH, Pusateri TJ. Zygomaticofrontal suture defect associated with orbital dermoid cyst. Surv Ophthalmol. 1988;33:127–30.
Sathananthan N, Moseley IF, Rose GE, Wright JE. The frequency and clinical significance of bone involvement in outer canthus dermoid cysts. Br J Ophthalmol. 1993;77:789–94.
Sherman RP, Rootman J, LaPointe JS. Orbital dermoids: clinical presentation and management. Br J Ophthalmol. 1984;68:642–52.
Shields JA, Augsburger JJ, Donoso LA. Orbital dermoid cyst of conjunctival origin. Am J Ophthalmol. 1986;101:726–9.
Shields JA, Kaden IH, Eagle RC Jr, Shields CL. Orbital dermoid cysts: clinicopathologic correlations, classification, and management. The 1997 Josephine E. Schuleler Lecture. Ophthalmic Plast Reconstr Surg. 1997;13:265–76.
Traboulsi EI, Azar DT, Khattar J, Salamoun SG. A-scan ultrasonography in the diagnosis of orbital dermoid cysts. Ann Ophthalmol. 1988;20:229–32.
Wilkins RB, Byrd WA. Intraconal dermoid cyst. A case report. Ophthal Plast Reconstr Surg. 1986;2:83–7.
Cystic Lesions: Dermoid Cyst of Conjunctival Origin
Bartlett SP, Lin KY, Katowitz J. The surgical management of orbitofacial dermoids in the pediatric patient. Plast Reconstr Surg. 1993;91:1208–15.
Dutton JJ, Byrne SF, Proia AD. Diagnostic atlas of orbital diseases. Philadelphia: WB Saunders; 2004. p. 4–7.
Jakobiec FA, Bonanno PA, Sigelman J. Conjunctival adnexal cysts and dermoids. Arch Ophthalmol. 1978;96:1404–9.
Lane CM, Ehrlich WW, Wright JE. Orbital dermoid cyst. Eye. 1987;1:504–11.
Shields JA, Shields CL. Orbital cysts of childhood: classification, clinical features and management. Surv Ophthalmol. 2004;49:281–99.
Shields JA, Kaden IH, Eagle RC, Shields CL. Orbital dermoid cysts: clinicopathologic correlations, classification and management: the 1997 Josephine E. Schuler Lecture. Ophthalmic Plast Reconstr Surg. 1997;13:256–76.
Cystic Lesions: Epidermoid Cyst
Blanco G, Esteban R, Falarreta D, Saornil A. Orbital intradiploic giant epidermoid cyst. Arch Ophthalmol. 2001;119:771–3.
Bradey N, Hayward JM. Case report: bilateral lacrimal gland enlargement: an unusual manifestation of dacryops. Clin Radiol. 1991;43:280–1.
Brownstein S, Belin MW, Krohel GB, et al. Orbital dacryops. Ophthalmology. 1984;91:1424–8.
Bullock JD, Fleishman JA, Rosset JS. Lacrimal ductal cysts. Ophthalmology. 1986;93:1355–60.
Eggert JE, Harris GJ, Caya JG. Respiratory epithelial cyst of the orbit. Ophthal Plast Reconstr Surg. 1988;4:101–4.
Eijpe AA, Koornneef L, Verbeeten B, et al. Intradiploic epidermoid cysts of the bony orbit. Ophthalmology. 1991;98:1737–43.
Haik BG, St Louis L. Radiologic recognition of orbital dacryops. Am J Neuroradiol. 1989;10:S89–90.
Hanig CJ, Hornblass A. Treatment of postenucleation orbital cysts. Ann Ophthalmol. 1986;18:191–3.
Ho VT, Rao VM, Flanders AE. Postsurgical conjunctival epithelial cysts. Am J Neuroradiol. 1994;15:1181–3.
Johnson DW, Bartley GB, Garrity JA, Robertson DM. Massive epithelium-lined cysts after scleral buckling. Am J Ophthalmol. 1992;113:439–42.
Monica M, Long DA, Karciouglu ZA. Bilateral dacryops. Ann Ophthalmol. 1988;20:259–63.
Morax S, Herdan ML, Chouard B. Kystes orbitaires par inclusion conjunctivale après chirurgie orbito-oculopalpebrale. J Fr Ophtalmol. 1987;10:41–9.
Nerad JA, Carter K, Folberg R. Simple dacryops. Arch Ophthalmol. 1988;106:1129.
Newton C, Dutton JJ, Klintworth GK. A respiratory epithelial choristomatous cyst of the orbit. Ophthalmology. 1985;12:1754–7.
Pantaleoni FB, Spagnolo S, Martini A, et al. Argon laser photocoagulation in the treatment of the palpebral lobe cysts of the lacrimal gland (dacryops). Ophthalmic Surg Lasers. 1997;28:690–2.
Rumelt S, Harsh GR IV, Rubin PAD. Giant epidermoid involving 3 cranial bones. Arch Ophthalmol. 1997;115:922–4.
Scholte T, Nagel G, Vecsei PV, Herzau V, Rohrbach JM. Conjunctival cysts of the orbits: clinical aspects and histology in 4 patients. Klin Monatsbl Augenheilkd. 1998;213:117–20.
Cystic Lesions: Mucocele
Aoki H, Tanaka Y, Niki Y, Kamada K, Fujita T. Intraorbital subperiosteal hematoma due to paranasal mucocele – case report. Neurol Med Chir (Tokyo). 1997;37:627–9.
Barat JL, Marchal JC, Bracard S, Auque J, Lepoire J. Mucoceles of the sphenoidal sinus. Report of six cases and review of the literature. J Neuroradiol. 1990;17:135–51.
Hejazi N, Witzmann A, Hassler W. Ocular manifestations of sphenoid mucoceles: clinical features and neurosurgical management of three cases and review of the literature. Surg Neurol. 2001;56:338–43.
Iliff CE. Mucoceles in the orbit. Arch Ophthalmol. 1973;89:392–5.
Knipe TA, Gandhi PD, Fleming JC, Chandra RK. Transblepharoplasty approach to sequestered disease of the lateral frontal sinus with ophthalmologic manifestations. Am J Rhinol. 2007;21(1):100–4.
Moriyama H, Nakajima T, Honda Y. Studies on mucoceles of the ethmoid and sphenoid sinuses analysis of 47 cases. J Laryngol Otol. 1992;106:23–7.
Ormerod LD, Weber AL, Rauch SD, Feldon SE. Ophthalmic manifestations of maxillary sinus mucoceles. Ophthalmology. 1987;94:1013–9.
Palmer-Hall AM, Anderson SF. Paraocular sinus mucoceles. J Am Optom Assoc. 1997;68:725–33.
Sautter NB, Citardi MJ, Perry J, Batra PS. Paranasal sinus mucoceles with skull-base and/or orbital erosion: is the endoscopic approach sufficient? Otolaryngol Head Neck Surg. 2008;139(4):570–4.
Sethi DS, Lau DP, Chan C. Sphenoid sinus mucocele presenting with isolated oculomotor nerve palsy. J Laryngol Otol. 1997;111:471–3.
Shah A, Meyer DR, Parnes S. Management of frontoethmoidal mucoceles with orbital extension: is primary orbital reconstruction necessary? Ophthal Plast Reconstr Surg. 2007;23(4):267–71.
Stanton MB. Sphenoid sinus mucocele. Am J Ophthalmol. 1970;70:991–4.
Van Tassel P, Lee YY, Jing BS, De Pena CA. Mucoceles of the paranasal sinuses: MR imaging with CT correlation. Am J Neuroradiol. 1989;10:607–12.
Cystic Lesions: Respiratory Cyst
Eggert JE, Harris GJ, Caya JG. Respiratory epithelial cyst of the orbit. Ophthal Plast Reconstr Surg. 1988;4:101–4.
Hanke V, Gotzfried H. Rhinoepithelial, cystic choristoma of the orbit. Klin Monatsbl Augenheilkd. 1987;190:192–5.
James CR, Lyness R, Wright JE. Respiratory epithelium lines cysts presenting in the orbit without associated mucocele formation. Br J Ophthalmol. 1986;70:387–90.
Mee JJ, McNab AA, McKelvie P. Respiratory epithelial orbital cysts. Clin Exp Ophthalmol. 2004;30:356–60.
Morris WR, Fleming JC. Respiratory choristomatous cysts in the temporal orbit. Ophthal Plast Reconstr Surg. 2001;17:462–4.
Neves RB, Yeatts RP, Martin TJ. Pneumonia-orbital cysts after orbital fracture repair. Am J Ophthalmol. 1998;125:879–80.
Newton C, Dutton JJ, Klintworth GK. A respiratory epithelial choristomatous cyst of the orbit. Ophthalmology. 1985;12:1754–7.
Schelper RL, Kagan-Hallet KS, Huntington HW. Brainstem subarachnoid respiratory epithelial cysts: report of two cases and review of the literature. Hum Pathol. 1986;17:417–22.
Vascular Lesions: Capillary Hemangioma
Balchunas ER, Quencer RM, Byrne SF, et al. Correlative of the computed tomographic, ultrasonographic, and pathological characteristics of cavernous versus capillary hemangiomas of the orbit. J Clin Neuroophthalmol. 1983;6:14.
Clymer MA, Fortune DS, Reinisch L, et al. Interstitial Nd:YAG photocoagulation for vascular malformations and hemangiomas in childhood. Arch Otolaryngol Head Neck Surg. 1998;124:431–6.
Cogen MS, Elsas FJ. Eyelid depigmentation following corticosteroid injection for infantile ocular adnexal hemangioma. J Pediatr Ophthalmol Strabismus. 1989;26:35–8.
Deans RM, Harris GJ, Kivlin JD. Surgical dissection of capillary hemangiomas. An alternative to intralesional corticosteroids. Arch Ophthalmol. 1992;110:1743–7.
Gdal-On M, Gelfand YE. Cryoextraction of orbital capillary hemangioma diagnosed by technetium-99 labeled red blood cell scintigraphy. Ophthalmic Surg Lasers. 1997;28:954–6.
Gundalp I, Gunduz K. Vascular tumors of the orbit. Doc Ophthalmol. 1995;89:337–45.
Haik BG, Jakobiec FA, Ellsworth RM, Jones IS. Capillary hemangioma of the lids and orbit: an analysis of the clinical features and therapeutic results in 101 cases. Ophthalmology. 1979;86:760–92.
Haik BG, Karcioglu ZA, Goson RA, Pechous BP. Capillary hemangioma (infantile periocular hemangioma). Surv Ophthalmol. 1994;38:399–426.
Harris GJ, Jakobiec FA. Cavernous hemangioma of the orbit. J Neurosurg. 1979;51:219–28.
Léauté-Labrèze C, Dumas de la Roque E, Hubiche T, et al. Propranolol for severe hemangiomas of infancy. N Engl J Med. 2008;358:2649–51.
Milot J, Saurel P. Peri-ocular hemangioma in children. Apropos of 25 cases. Chir Pediatr. 1989;30:43–6.
O’Keefe M, Lanigan B, Byrne SA. Capillary haemangioma of the eyelids and orbit: a clinical review of the safety and efficacy of intralesional steroid. Acta Ophthalmol Scand. 2003;81:294–8.
Orawiec B, Stefanczyk L, Czajkowski J, Bogorodzki B, Gralek M. Periorbital capillary hemangiomas in children – treatment and monitoring of treatment. Klin Ocz. 1996;98:217–20.
Siegfried EC, Keenan WJ, Al-Jureidini S, et al. More on propranolol for hemangiomas in infancy. N Engl J Med. 2008;359:2846–7.
Sklar EL, Quencer RM, Byrne SF, Sklar VE. Correlative study of the computed tomographic, ultrasonographic, and pathological characteristics of cavernous versus capillary hemangiomas of the orbit. J Clin Neuroophthalmol. 1986;6:14–21.
Sweet C, Silbergleit R, Mehta B. Primary intraosseous hemangioma of the orbit: CT and MRI appearance. Am J Neuroradiol. 1997;18:379–81.
Taban M, Goldberg RA. Propranolol for orbital hemangioma. Ophthalmology. 2010;117:195–195.e4.
Teske S, Ohlrich SJ, Gole G, et al. Treatment of orbital capillary haemangioma with interferon. Aust N Z J Ophthalmol. 1994;22:13–7.
Verity DH, Restori M, Rose GE. Natural history of periocular capillary haemangiomas: changes in internal blood velocity and lesion volume. Eye. 2006;20:1228–37.
Verity DH, Rose GE, Restori M. The effect of intralesional steroid injections on the volume and blood flow in periocular capillary haemangiomas. Orbit. 2008;27:41–7.
Walker RS, Custer PL, Nerad JA. Surgical excision of periorbital capillary hemangiomas. Ophthalmology. 1994;101:1333–40.
Vascular Lesions: Cavernous Hemangioma
Acciarri N, Padovani R, Giulioni M, Gaist G, Acciarri R. Intracranial and orbital cavernous angiomas: a review of 74 surgical cases. Br J Neurosurg. 1993;7:529–39.
Acciarri N, Giulioni M, Padovani R, et al. Orbital cavernous angiomas: surgical experience on a series of 13 cases. J Neurosurg Sci. 1995;39:203–9.
Alfred PR, Char DH. Cavernous hemangiomas of the orbit. Orbit. 1996;15:59–66.
Ansari SA, Mafee MF. Orbital cavernous hemangioma: role of imaging. Neuroimaging Clin N Am. 2005;15:137–58.
Balchunas ER, Quencer RM, Byrne SF, et al. Correlative of the computed tomographic, ultrasonographic, and pathological characteristics of cavernous versus capillary hemangiomas of the orbit. J Clin Neuroophthalmol. 1983;6:14.
Davis KR, Hesselink JR, Dallow RL, Grove AS Jr. CT and ultrasound in the diagnosis of cavernous hemangioma and lymphangioma of the orbit. CT. 1980;4:98–104.
Fries PD, Char DH, Norman D. MR imaging of orbital cavernous hemangioma. J Comput Assist Tomogr. 1987;11:418–21.
Fries PD, Char DH. Bilateral orbital cavernous haemangiomas. Br J Ophthalmol. 1988;72:871–3.
Gdal-On M, Gelfand YA. Surgical outcome of transconjunctival cryosurgical extraction of orbital cavernous hemangioma. Ophthalmic Surg Lasers. 1998;29:969–73.
Goldberg RA, Shorr N, Arnold AC, Garcia GH. Deep transorbital approach to the apex and cavernous sinus. Ophthal Plast Reconstr Surg. 1998;14:336–41.
Harris GJ, Jakobiec FA. Cavernous hemangioma of the orbit: a clinicopathologic analysis of sixty-six cases. In: Jakobiec FA, editor. Ocular and adnexal tumors. Birmingham: Aesculapius; 1977. p. 741–81.
Harris GJ, Jakobiec FA. Cavernous hemangioma of the orbit. J Neurosurg. 1979;51:219–28.
Hashimoto M, Ohtsuka K, Nakamura Y, Nakagawa T. Diagnostic imaging of orbital cavernous hemangioma. Jpn J Clin Ophthalmol. 1997;51:1613–7.
Khan AA, Niranjan A, Kano H, et al. Stereotactic radiosurgery for cavernous sinus or orbital hemangiomas. Neurosurgery. 2009;65:914–8.
Kopelow SM, Foos RY, Straatsma BR, Helper RS, Pearlman JT. Cavernous hemangioma of the orbit. Int Ophthalmol Clin. 1971;11:113–24.
Leatherbarrow B, Noble JL, Lloyd IC. Cavernous haemangioma of the orbit. Eye. 1989;3:90–9.
Mawn LA, Jordan DR, Gilberg SM. Cavernous hemangiomas of the orbital apex with intracranial extension. Ophthalmic Surg Lasers. 1998;29:680–4.
McNab AA, Wright JE. Cavernous haemangiomas of the orbit. Aust N Z J Ophthalmol. 1989;17:337–45.
Ohtsuka K, Hashimoto M, Akiba H. Serial dynamic magnetic resonance imaging of orbital cavernous hemangioma. Am J Ophthalmol. 1997;123:396–8.
Orcutt JC, Wulc AE, Mills RP, Smith CF. Asymptomatic orbital cavernous hemangiomas. Ophthalmology. 1991;98:1257–60.
Ossoinig KC. Echographic differentiation of vascular tumors in the orbit. In: Thijssen JM, Verbeek A, editors. Ultrasonography in ophthalmology. Dordrecht: Dr W Junk; 1981. p. 283.
Ruchman MC, Flannagan J. Cavernous hemangiomas of the orbit. Ophthalmology. 1983;90:1328–36.
Shields JA, Shields CL, Eagle RC. Cavernous hemangioma of the orbit. Arch Ophthalmol. 1987;105:853.
Sklar EL, Quencer RM, Byrne SF, Sklar VE. Correlative study of the computed tomographic, ultrasonographic, and pathological characteristics of cavernous versus capillary hemangiomas of the orbit. J Clin Neuroophthalmol. 1986;6:14–21.
Sullivan TJ, Aylward GW, Wright JE, Moseley IF, Garner A. Bilateral multiple cavernous haemangiomas of the orbit. Br J Ophthalmol. 1992;76:627–9.
Wilms G, Raat H, Dom R, et al. Orbital cavernous hemangioma: findings on sequential Gd-enhanced MRI. J Comput Assist Tomogr. 1995;19:548–51.
Yan J, Wu Z. Cavernous hemangioma of the orbit: analysis of 214 cases. Orbit. 2004;23:33–40.
Vascular Lesions: Lymphangioma
Berthout A, Jacomet PV, Putterman M, et al. Surgical treatment of diffuse adult orbital lymphangioma: two case studies. J Fr Ophtalmol. 2008;31:1006–17.
Bond JB, Haik BG, Taveras JL, et al. Magnetic resonance imaging of orbital lymphangioma with and without gadolinium contrast enhancement. Ophthalmology. 1992;99:1318–24.
Gelbert F, Riche MC, Reizine D, et al. MR imaging of head and neck vascular malformations. J Magn Reson Imaging. 1991;1:579–84.
Graeb DA, Rootman J, Robertson WD, et al. Orbital lymphangiomas: clinical, radiologic, and pathologic characteristics. Radiology. 1990;175:417–21.
Gunduz K, Demirel S, Yagmurlu B, Erden E. Correlation of surgical outcome with neuroimaging findings in periocular lymphangiomas. Ophthalmology. 2006;113:1231.e1–8.
Harris GJ, Sakol PJ, Bonavolonta GT, De Conciliis C. An analysis of thirty cases of orbital lymphangioma. Pathophysiologic considerations and management recommendations. Ophthalmology. 1990;97:1583–92.
Hemmer KM, Marsh JL, Milder B. Orbital lymphangioma. Plast Reconstr Surg. 1988;82:340–3.
Huckabee RE, Raila FA. MRI and CT comparison of an orbital cavernous lymphangioma. J Miss State Med Assoc. 1991;32:371–3.
Iliff EJ, Green WR. Orbital lymphangiomas. Ophthalmology. 1979;86:914–29.
Katz SE, Rootman J, Vangveeravong S, Graeb D. Combined venous lymphatic malformations of the orbit (so-called lymphangiomas). Associated with noncontiguous intracranial vascular anomalies. Ophthalmology. 1998;105:176–84.
Kazim M, Kennerdell JS, Rothfus W, Marquardt M. Orbital lymphangioma. Correlation of magnetic resonance images and intraoperative findings. Ophthalmology. 1992;99:1588–94.
Morax S, Cochetel C. Orbital lymphangioma. Apropos of 2 uncommon cases. Ann Chir Plast Esthet. 1991;36:306–12.
Schwarcz RM, Ben Simon GJ, Cook T, Goldberg RA. Sclerosing therapy as first line treatment for low flow vascular lesions of the orbit. Am J Ophthalmol. 2006;141:333–9.
Westerling D, Blohma J, Stigmar G. Orbital mass in a child causing somnolence, nausea and bradycardia. Can J Anaesth. 1998;45:777–80.
Wilson ME, Parker PL, Chavis RM. Conservative management of childhood orbital lymphangioma. Ophthalmology. 1989;96:484–9.
Wright JE, Sullivan TJ, Garner A, Wulc AE, Moseley IF. Orbital venous anomalies. Ophthalmology. 1997;104:905–13.
Zucker JL, Assaad M, Levine MR. Orbital lymphangioma with intracranial extension. Ophthal Plast Reconstr Surg. 1995;11:22–6.
Vascular Lesions: Varices
Beyer R, Levine MR, Sternberg I. Orbital varices: a surgical approach. Ophthal Plast Reconstr Surg. 1985;1:205–10.
Bullock JD, Goldberg SH, Connelly PJ. Orbital varix thrombosis. Ophthalmology. 1990;97:251–6.
Garrity JA. Orbital venous anomalies. A long-standing dilemma. Ophthalmology. 1997;104:903–4.
Islam N, Mireskandari K, Rose GE. Orbital varices and orbital wall defects. Br J Ophthalmol. 2004;88:833–4.
Kim YJ, Kim YD. Orbital venous anomaly presenting with orbital hemorrhage. Jpn J Ophthalmol. 2009;53:408–13.
Lieb WE, Merton DA, Shields JA, et al. Colour Doppler imaging in the demonstration of an orbital varix. Br J Ophthalmol. 1990;74:305–8.
Lloyd GA. Phleboliths in the orbit. Clin Radiol. 1965;16:339–46.
Lloyd GA. Vascular anomalies in the orbit: CT and angiographic diagnosis. Orbit. 1982;1:45–54.
Nasr AM, Huaman AM. Anterior orbital varix presenting as a lacrimal sac mucocele. Ophthal Plast Reconstr Surg. 1998;14:193–7.
Phan IT, Hoyt WF, McCulley TJ, Hwang TN. Blindness from orbital varices: case report. Orbit. 2009;28:303–5.
Rubin PA, Remulla HD. Orbital venous anomalies demonstrated by spiral computed tomography. Ophthalmology. 1997;104:1463–70.
Shields JA, Eagle RC Jr, Shields CL, De Potter P, Shapiro RS. Orbital varix presenting as a subconjunctival mass. Ophthal Plast Reconstr Surg. 1995;11:37–8.
Tsai AS, Fong KS, Lim W, et al. Bilateral orbital varices: an approach to management. Ophthal Plast Reconstr Surg. 2008;24:486–8.
Weill A, Cognard C, Castaings L, Robert G, Moret J. Embolization of an orbital varix after surgical exposure. Am J Neuroradiol. 1998;19:921–3.
Wildenhain PM, Leher SC, Dastur KJ. Dodd 3rd GD. Orbital varix: color flow imaging correlated with CT and MRI studies. J Comput Assist Tomogr. 1991;15:171–3.
Wright JE, Sullivan TJ, Garner A, Wulc AE, Moseley IF. Orbital venous anomalies. Ophthalmology. 1997;104:905–13.
Yeatts RP, Driver PJ. Orbital varix. Arch Ophthalmol. 1993;111:702–3.
Vascular Lesions: Angiosarcoma
Brush M, Zhang J, Schuetze S, Sires B. Angiosarcoma metastatic to the orbit. Ophthal Plast Reconstr Surg. 2006;22:62–4.
Burnstein MA, Frueh BR, Elner VM. Angiosarcoma metastatic to the orbit. Arch Ophthalmol. 1996;114:93–6.
De Keizer RJ, de Wolff-Rouendaal D, Nooy MA. Angiosarcoma of the eyelid and periorbital region. Experience in Leiden with iridium192 brachytherapy and low-dose doxorubicin chemotherapy. Orbit. 2008;27:5–12.
Günalp I, Günalp K. Vascular tumors of the orbit. Doc Ophthalmol. 1995;89:337–45.
Hufnagel T, Ma L, Kuo TT. Orbital angiosarcoma with subconjunctival presentation. Report of a case and literature review. Ophthalmology. 1987;94:72–7.
Lopes M, Duffau H, Fleuridas G. Primary spheno-orbital angiosarcoma: case report and review of the literature. Neurosurgery. 1999;44:405–7.
Mehrens C, Anvari L, Grezebach UH, Metze D. Unilateral eyelid swelling as an initial manifestation of angiosarcoma. Hautarzt. 2000;51:419–22.
Messmer EP, Font RL, McCrary JA 3rd, Murphy D. Epithelioid angiosarcoma of the orbit presenting as Tolosa-Hunt syndrome. A clinicopathologic case report with review of the literature. Ophthalmology. 1983;90:1414–21.
Sasaki R, Soejima T, Kishi K, et al. Angiosarcoma treated with radiotherapy: impact of tumor type and size on outcome. Int J Radiat Ocol Boil Phys. 2002;15:1032–40.
Siddens JD, Fishman JR, Jackson IT, et al. Primary orbital angiosarcoma: a case report. Ophthal Plast Reconstr Surg. 1999;15:454–9.
Neural Tumors: Carcinoid
Aburn NS, Whitehead K, Sullivan TJ. Bronchopulmonary atypical carcinoid tumour metastatic to the orbit. Aust N Z J Ophtalmol. 1995;23:241–4.
Borota OC, Kloster R, Lindal S. Carcinoid tumour metastatic to the orbit with infiltration to the extraocular orbital muscle. APMIS. 2005;113:165–7.
Braffman BH, Bilaniuk LR, Eagle RC, et al. MR imaging of a carcinoid tumor metastatic to the orbit. J Comput Assist Tomogr. 1987;11:891–4.
Couch DA, O’Halloran HS, Hainsworth KM, et al. Carcinoid metastasis to extraocular muscles: case reports and review of the literature. Orbit. 2000;19:263–9.
Divine RD, Anderson RL, Ossoinig KC. Metastatic carcinoid unresponsive to radiation therapy presenting as a lacrimal fossa mass. Ophthalmology. 1982;89:516–20.
El-Toukhy E, Levine MR, Abdul-Karim FW, et al. Carcinoid tumors of the orbit: a dilemma of diagnosis and treatment. Ophthal Plast Reconstr Surg. 1996;12:279–83.
Fan JT, Buettner H, Bartley GB, Bolling JP. Clinical features and treatment of seven patients with carcinoid tumor metastatic to the eye and orbit. Am J Ophtalmol. 1995;119:211–8.
Ferry AP, Font RL. Carcinoma metastatic to the eye and orbit, I: a clinicopathologic study of 227 cases. Arch Ophthalmol. 1974;92:276–86.
Harris AL, Montgomery A. Orbital carcinoid tumor. Am J Ophtalmol. 1980;90:875–6.
Isidori AM, Kaltsas G, Frajese V, Kola B, Whitelocke RA, Plowman PN, et al. Ocular metastases secondary to carcinoid tumors: the utility of imaging with [(123)I]meta-iodobenzylguanidine and [(111)In]DTPA pentetreotide. J Clin Endocrinol Metab. 2002;87:1627–33.
Kiratli H, Yilmaz PT, Yildiz ZI. Metastatic atypical carcinoid tumor of the inferior rectus muscle. Ophthal Plast Reconstr Surg. 2008;24:482–4.
Knox RJ, Gigantelli JW, Arthurs BP. Recurrent orbital inflammation from metastatic orbital carcinoid tumor. Ophthal Plast Reconstr Surg. 2001;17:137–9.
Pinchot SN, Holen K, Sippel RS, Chen H. Carcinoid tumors. Oncologist. 2008;13:1255–69.
Riddle PJ, Font RL, Zimmerman LE. Carcinoid tumours of the eye and orbit: a clinicopathologic study of 15 cases, with histochemical and electron microscopic observations. Hum Pathol. 1982;13:459–69.
Rush JA, Waller RR, Campbell RJ. Orbital carcinoid tumor metastatic from the colon. Am J Ophtalmol. 1980;189:636–40.
Shetlar DJ, Font RI, Ordonez N, et al. A clinicopathologic study of three carcinoid tumors metastatic to the orbit. Immunohistochemical, ultrastructural, and DNA flow cytometric studies. Ophthalmology. 1990;97:257.64.
Takemoto Y, Nishida N, Kjiro S, et al. Metastatic carcinoid tumor in the orbit. Kurume Med J. 2003;50:165–7.
Zimmerman LE, Stangl R, Riddle PJ. Primary carcinoid tumor of the orbit. A clinicopathologic study with histochemical and electron microscopic observations. Arch Ophthalmol. 1983;101:1395–8.
Neural Tumors: Malignant Peripheral Nerve Sheath Tumor
Aydin MD, Yildrim U, Gundogdu C, et al. Malignant peripheral nerve sheath tumor of the orbit: case report and literature review. Skull Base. 2004;14:109–13.
Beegun I, Bottrill ID, Hollowood K. Malignant peripheral nerve sheath tumours of the infraorbital nerve: case report and literature review. J Laryngol Otol. 2009;123:466–70.
Bhargava R, Parham DM, Lasater OE, et al. MR imaging differentiation of benign and malignant peripheral nerve sheath tumors: use of the target sign. Pediatr Radiol. 1997;27:124–9.
Cheng SF, Chen YI, Chang CY, et al. Malignant peripheral nerve sheath tumor of the orbit: malignant transformation from neurofibroma without neurofibromatosis. Ophthal Plast Reconstr Surg. 2008;24:413–5.
Chibbaro S, Herman P, Povlika M, George B. Malignant trigeminal schwannoma extending into the anterior skull base. Acta Neurochir. 2008;150:599–604.
Erzurum SA, Melen O, Lissner G, et al. Orbital malignant peripheral nerve sheath tumors. Treatment with surgical resection and radiation therapy. J Clin Neuroophthalmol. 1993;13:1–7.
Eviatar JA, Hornblass A, Herschorn B, Jakobiec FA. Malignant peripheral nerve sheath tumor of the orbit in a 15-year-old child. Nine-year survival after local excision. Ophthalmology. 1992;99:1595–9.
Fezza JP, Wolfley DE, Flynn SD. Malignant peripheral nerve sheath tumor of the orbit in a newborn: a case report and review. J Pediatr Ophthalmol Strabismus. 1997;34:128–31.
Grinberg MA, Levy NS. Malignant neurilemoma of the supraorbital nerve. Am J Ophthalmol. 1974;78:489–92.
Jakobiec FA, Font RL, Zimmerman LE. Malignant peripheral nerve sheath tumors of the orbit: a clinicopathologic study of eight cases. Trans Am Ophthalmol Soc. 1985;83:332–66.
Lyons CJ, McNab AA, Garner A, Wright JE. Orbital malignant peripheral nerve sheath tumours. Br J Ophthalmol. 1989;73:731–8.
Miliaras G, Tsitsopoulos PP, Asproudis I, et al. Malignant orbital schwannoma with massive intracranial recurrence. Acta Neurochir. 2008;150:1291–4.
Mortada A. Solitary orbital malignant neurilemmoma. Br J Ophthalmol. 1968;52:188–90.
Morton AD, Elner VM, Frueh B. Recurrent orbital malignant peripheral nerve sheath tumor 18 years after initial resection. Ophthal Plast Reconstr Surg. 1997;13:239–43.
Prescott DK, Racz MM, Ng JD. Epithelioid malignant peripheral nerve sheath tumor in the infraorbital nerve. Ophthal Plast Reconstr Surg. 2006;22:150–1.
Stull MA, Moser RP Jr, Kransdorf MJ, Bogumill GP, Nelson MC. Magnetic resonance imaging appearance of peripheral nerve sheath tumors. Skelet Radiol. 1991;20:9–14.
Neural Tumors: Meningocele
Clauser L, Carinci F, Galie M. Neurofibromatosis of the orbit and skull base. J Craniofac Surg. 1998;9:280–4.
Holmes AD, Meara JG, Kolker AR, et al. Frontoethmoidal encephaloceles: reconstruction and refinements. J Craniofac Surg. 2001;12:6–18.
Hershewe GL, Corbett JJ, Ossoinig KC, et al. Optic nerve compression from a basal encephalocele. J Neuroophthalmol. 1995;15:161–5.
Islam N, Mireskandari K, Burton BJ, Rose GE. Orbital varices, cranial defects, and encephaloceles: an unrecognized association. Ophthalmology. 2004;111(6):1244–7.
Lieb W, Rochels R, Kretzschmar K. Sonography and computed tomography in the diagnosis of orbitocranial malformations and tumors. Neurosurg Rev. 1987;10(2):93–101.
Macfarlane R, Rutka JT, Armstrong D, et al. Encephaloceles of the anterior cranial fossa. Pediatr Neurosurg. 1989;23:148–58.
Nasu W, Kobayashi S, Kashiwa K, Honda T. Secondary craniofacial reconstruction of huge frontoethmoidal encephalomeningocele after primary neurosurgical repair. J Craniofac Surg. 2008;19(1):171–4.
Newman NJ, Miller NR, Green WR. Ectopic brain in the orbit. Ophthalmology. 1986;93:268–72.
Shields JA, Shields CL. Orbital cysts of childhood–classification, clinical features, and management. Surv Ophthalmol. 2004;49(3):281–99.
Songur E, Mutluer S, Gurler T, et al. Management of frontoethmoidal encephalocele. J Craniofac Surg. 1999;10:135–9.
Spooler JC, Cho D, Ray A, Zouros A. Patient with congenital optic nerve meningocele presenting with left orbital cyst. Childs Nerv Syst. 2009;25(2):267–9.
Sugawara Y, Harii K, Hirabayashi S, et al. A spheno-orbital encephalocele with unilateral exophthalmos. Ann Plast Surg. 1996;36:410–2.
Neural Tumors: Neuroblastoma
Alfano JE. Ophthalmological aspects of neuroblastomatosis: a study of 53 verified cases. Trans Am Acad Ophthalmol Otolaryngol. 1968;72:830–48.
Apple DJ. Metastatic orbital neuroblastoma originating in the cervical sympathetic ganglion chain. Am J Ophthalmol. 1969;68:1093–5.
Belgaumi AF, Kauffman WM, Jenkins JJ, et al. Blindness in children with neuroblastoma. Cancer. 1997;80:1997–2004.
Boubaker A, Bischof-Delaloye A. Nuclear medicine procedures and neuroblastoma in childhood: their value in the diagnosis, staging and assessment of response to therapy. Q J Nucl Med. 2003;47:31–40.
Bullock JD, Goldberg SH, Rakes SM, Felder DS, Connelly PJ. Primary orbital neuroblastoma. Arch Ophthalmol. 1989;107:1031–3.
Chung EM, Murphey MD, Specht CS, et al. From the archives of the AFIP pediatric obit tumors and tumor like lesions: osseous lesions of the orbit. Radiographics. 2008;28:1193–214.
Gallet BL, Egelhoff JC. Unusual CNS and orbital metastases of neuroblastoma. Pediatr Radiol. 1989;19:287–9.
Jakobiec FA, Klepach GL, Crissman JD, Spoor TC. Primary differentiated neuroblastoma of the orbit. Ophthalmology. 1987;94:255–66.
Kai T, Ishii E, Matsuzaki A, et al. High-dose chemotherapy and autologous blood stem transplantation in children with metastatic neuroblastoma. Acta Paediatr Jpn. 1997;39:54–60.
Laforest C, Selva D, Cromptom J, Leibovitch I. Orbital invasion by esthesioneuroblastoma. Ophthal Plast Reconstr Surg. 2005;21:435–40.
Latchaw RE, L’Heureux PR, Young G, Priest JR. Neuroblastoma presenting as central nervous system disease. Am J Neuroradiol. 1982;3:623–30.
Lau JJ, Trobe JD, Ruiz RE, et al. Metastatic neuroblastoma presenting with binocular blindness from intracranial compression of the optic nerves. J Neuroophthalmol. 2004;24:119–24.
Lonergan GJ, Schwab CM, Suarez ES, Carlson CL. Neuroblastoma, ganglioneuroblastoma, and ganglioneuroma: radiologic-pathologic correlation. Radiographics. 2002;22:911–34.
Mehta A, Chandra M. Rare orbitocranial tumour in an adult. Orbit. 2009;28:285–9.
Mortada A. Clinical characteristics of early orbital neuroblastoma. Am J Ophthalmol. 1967;63:1787–93.
Musarella M, Chan HSL, DeBoer G, et al. Ocular involvement in neuroblastoma: prognostic implications. Ophthalmology. 1984;91:936–40.
Reim M, Muther HC, Karstens JH, Sieverts H. Pediatric neuroblastoma with early bilateral blindness. Klin Monatsbl Augenheilkd. 1988;192:33–6.
Schubert EE, Oliver GL, Jaco NT. Metastatic neuroblastoma causing bilateral blindness. Can J Ophthalmol. 1969;4:100–3.
Slamovits TL, Rosen CE, Suhrland MJ. Neuroblastoma presenting as acute lymphoblastic leukemia but correctly diagnosed after orbital fine-needle aspiration biopsy. J Clin Neuroophthalmol. 1991;11:158–61.
Neural Tumors: Optic Pathway Glioma
Alshail E, Rutka JT, Becker LE, Hoffman HJ. Optic chiasmatic-hypothalamic glioma. Brain Pathol. 1997;7:799–806.
Aoki S, Barkovich AJ, Nishimura K, et al. Neurofibromatosis type 1 and 2: cranial MR findings. Radiology. 1989;172:527–34.
Azar-Kia B, Naheedy MH, Elias DA, Mafee MF, Fine M. Optic nerve tumors: role of magnetic resonance imaging and computed tomography. Radiol Clin N Am. 1987;25:561–81.
Barnes PD, Robson CD, Robertson RL, Poussaint TY. Pediatric orbital and visual pathway lesions. Neuroimaging Clin N Am. 1996;6:179–98.
Collet-Solberg PF, Sernyak H, Satin-Smith M, et al. Endocrine outcome in long-term survivors of low-grade hypothalamic/chiasmatic glioma. Clin Endocrinol. 1997;47:79–85.
Dutton JJ. Gliomas of the anterior visual pathway. Surv Ophthalmol. 1994;38:427–52.
Es SV, North KN, McHugh K, Silva MD. MRI findings in children with neurofibromatosis type 1: a prospective study. Pediatr Radiol. 1996;26:478–87.
Garvey M, Packer RJ. An integrated approach to the treatment of chiasmatic hypothalamic gliomas. J Neuro-Oncol. 1996;28:167–83.
Grill J, Bhangoo NR. Recent developments in chemotherapy of paediatric brain tumors. Curr Opin Oncol. 2007;19:612–5.
Haik BG, Saint-Louis L, Bierly J, et al. Magnetic resonance imaging in the evaluation of optic nerve glioma. Ophthalmology. 1987;94:709–17.
Holman RE, Grimson BS, Drayer BP, Buckley EG, Brennan MW. Magnetic resonance imaging of optic nerve gliomas. Am J Ophthalmol. 1985;100:596–601.
Imes RK, Hoyt WF. Magnetic resonance imaging signs of optic nerve gliomas in neurofibromatosis. Am J Ophthalmol. 1991;111:729–34.
Jakobiec FA, Depot MJ, Kennerdell JS, et al. Combined clinical and computed tomographic diagnosis of orbital glioma and meningioma. Ophthalmology. 1984;91:137–55.
Janss AJ, Grundy R, Cnaan A, et al. Optic pathway and hypothalamic/chiasmatic gliomas in children younger than 5 years with a 6-year follow-up. Cancer. 1995;75:1051–9.
Lama G, Espisito Salsano M, Grassia C, et al. Neurofibromatosis type I and optic pathway glioma, a long-term follow-up. Minerva Pediatr. 2007;59:13–21.
Listernick R, Louis DN, Packer RJ, Gutmann DH. Optic pathway gliomas in children with neurofibromatosis 1: consensus statement from the NF1 Optic Pathway Glioma Task Force. Ann Neurol. 1997;41:143–9.
Listernick R, Ferner RE, Liu GT, Gutmann DH. Optic pathway gliomas in neurofibromatosis-1: controversies and recommendations. Ann Neurol. 2007;61:189–98.
Lloyd LA. Gliomas of the optic nerve and chiasm in childhood. Trans Am Ophthalmol Soc. 1973;71:488–535.
Mahoney DHJ, Cohen ME, Friedman HS, et al. Carboplatin is effective therapy for young children with progressive optic pathway tumors: a Pediatric Oncology Group phase II study. Neuro-Oncology. 2000;2:213–20.
Marquardt MD, Zimmerman LE. Histology of meningiomas and gliomas of the optic nerve. Hum Pathol. 1982;13:226–34.
Massry GG, Morgan CF, Chung SM. Evidence of optic pathway gliomas after previously negative neuroimaging. Ophthalmology. 1997;104:930–5.
Miller NR. Primary tumours of the optic nerve and its sheaths. Eye. 2004;18:1026–37.
Packer RJ, Ater J, Allen J, et al. Carboplatin and vincristine for children with newly diagnosed progressive low-grade gliomas. J Neurosurg. 1997;86:747–54.
Parsa CF, Hoyt CS, Lesser RL, et al. Spontaneous regression of optic gliomas: thirteen cases documented by serial imaging. Arch Ophthalmol. 2001;119:516–29.
Piccirilli M, Lenzi J, Delfinis C, et al. Spontaneous regression of optic pathway gliomas in three patients with neurofibromatosis type 1 and critical review of the literature. Childs Nerv Syst. 2006;22:1332–7.
Seiff SR, Brodsky MC, MacDonald G, et al. Orbital optic glioma in neurofibromatosis. Magnetic resonance diagnosis of perineural arachnoidal gliomatosis. Arch Ophthalmol. 1987;105:1689–92.
Sharif S, Ferner R, Birch JM, et al. Second primary tumors in neurofibromatosis 1 patients treated for optic nerve glioma: substantial risks after radiotherapy. J Clin Oncol. 2006;24:2570–5.
Spencer WH. Diagnostic modalities and natural behavior of optic nerve gliomas. Ophthalmology. 1979;86:881–5.
Stern J, Jakobiec FA, Housepian EM. The architecture of optic nerve gliomas with and without neurofibromatosis. Arch Ophthalmol. 1980;98:505–11.
Stieber VW. Radiation therapy for visual pathway gliomas. J Neuroophthalmol. 2008;28:222–30.
Sylvester CL, Drohan LA, Sergott RC. Optic-nerve gliomas, chiasmal gliomas and neurofibromatosis type 1. Curr Opin Ophthalmol. 2006;17:7–11.
Tao ML, Barnes PD, Billett AL, et al. Childhood optic chiasm gliomas: radiographic response following radiotherapy and long-term clinical outcome. Int J Radiat Oncol Biol Phys. 1997;39:579–87.
Thompson CR, Lessell S. Anterior visual pathway gliomas. Int Ophthalmol Clin. 1997;37:261–79.
Neural Tumors: Optic Nerve Sheath Meningioma
Andrews DW, Faroozan R, Yang BP, et al. Fractionated stereotactic radiotherapy for the treatment of optic nerve sheath meningiomas: preliminary observations of 33 optic nerves in 30 patients with historical comparison to observation with or without prior surgery. Neurosurgery. 2002;51:890–904.
Arvold ND, Lessell S, Bussiere M, et al. Visual outcome and tumor control after conformal radiotherapy for patients with optic nerve sheath meningioma. Int J Radiat Oncol Biol Phys. 2009;75:1166–72.
Baumert BG, Villa S, Studer G, et al. Early improvements in vision after fractionated stereotactic radiotherapy for primary optic nerve sheath meningioma. Radiother Oncol. 2004;72:169–74.
Bleeker GM. Orbital meningioma. Orbit. 1984;3:3–17.
Carrasco JR, Penne RB. Optic nerve sheath meningiomas and advanced treatment options. Curr Opin Ophthalmol. 2004;15:406–10.
Clark WC, Theofilos CS, Fleming JC. Primary optic nerve sheath meningiomas. Report of nine cases. J Neurosurg. 1989;70:37–40.
Cohn EM. Optic sheath meningioma. Neuroradiologic findings. J Clin Neuroophthalmol. 1983;3:85–9.
Cristine L. Surgical treatment of meningiomas of the optic canal: a retrospective study with particular attention to the visual outcome. Acta Neurochir. 1994;126:27–32.
Dutton JJ. Optic nerve sheath meningiomas. Surv Ophthalmol. 1992;37:167–83.
Eddelman CS, Liu JK. Optic nerve sheath meningioma: current diagnosis and treatment. Neurosurg Focus. 2007;23:E4.
Elster AD, Challa VR, Gilbert TH, Richardson DN, Contento JC. Meningiomas: MR and histopathologic features. Radiology. 1989;170:857–62.
Imes RK, Schatz H, Hoyt WF, et al. Evolution of optociliary veins in optic nerve sheath meningioma. Arch Ophthalmol. 1985;103:59–60.
Jakobiec FA, Depot MJ, Kennerdell JS, et al. Combined clinical and computed tomographic diagnosis of orbital glioma and meningioma. Ophthalmology. 1984;91:137–55.
Jew SY, Bartley GB, Garrity JA, et al. Radiation-induced meningiomas involving the orbit. Ophthal Plast Reconstr Surg. 2001;17:362–8.
Kennerdell JS, Maroon JC, Malton M, Warren FA. The management of optic sheath meningiomas. Am J Ophthalmol. 1988;106:450–7.
Kim JW, Rizzo JF, Lessell S. Controversies in the management of optic nerve sheath meningiomas. Int Ophthalmol Clin. 2005;45:15–23.
Lee AG, Woo SY, Miller NR, et al. Improvement in visual function in an eye with a presumed optic nerve sheath meningioma after treatment with three-dimensional conformal radiation therapy. J Neuroophthalmol. 1996;16:247–51.
Lieb WE, Rochels R, Wallenfang T, Ahl G. Ophthalmologic symptoms in meningioma of the orbits and in the anterior and medial cranial fossa. Fortschr Ophthalmol. 1994;91:341–5.
Lindblom B, Norman D, Hoyt WF. Perioptic cyst distal to optic nerve meningioma: MR demonstration. Am J Neuroradiol. 1992;13:1622–4.
Lindblom B, Truwit CL, Hoyt WF. Optic nerve sheath meningioma. Definition of intraorbital, intracanalicular, and intracranial components with magnetic resonance imaging. Ophthalmology. 1992;99:560–6.
Louis DN, Scheithauer BW, Budka H, et al. Meningiomas. In: Kleihues P, Cavenee WK, editors. World health organization classification of tumours. Pathology and genetics. Tumours of the nervous system. Lyon: IARC Press; 2000. p. 176–84.
McNab AA, Wright JE. Cysts of the optic nerve three cases associated with meningioma. Eye. 1989;3:355–9.
Milker-Zabel S, Huber P, Schlegel W, et al. Fractionated stereotactic radiation therapy in the management of primary optic nerve sheath meningiomas. J Neuro-Oncol. 2009;94:419–24.
Miller NR. New concepts in the diagnosis and management of optic nerve sheath meningioma. J Neuro-Oncol. 2006;26:200–8.
Moyer PD, Golnik KC, Breneman J. Treatment of optic nerve sheath meningioma with three-dimensional conformal radiation. Am J Ophthalmol. 2000;129:694–6.
Oritz O, Schochet SS, Kotzan JM, Kostick D. Radiologic-pathologic correlation. Meningioma of the optic nerve sheath. Am J Neuroradiol. 1996;17:901–6.
Saeed P, Rootman J, Nugent RA, et al. Optic nerve sheath meningiomas. Ophthalmology. 2003;110:2019–30.
Saeed P, Tanck MW, Freling N, et al. Somatostatin receptor scintigraphy for optic nerve sheath meningiomas. Ophthalmology. 2009;116:1581–6.
Sarkies NJ. Optic nerve sheath meningioma: diagnostic features and therapeutic alternatives. Eye. 1987;1:597–602.
Schick U, Dott U, Hassler W. Surgical management of meningiomas involving the optic nerve sheath. J Neurosurg. 2004;101:951–9.
Sibony PA, Krauss HR, Kennerdell JS, Maroon JC, Slamovits TL. Optic nerve sheath meningioma. Clinical manifestations. Ophthalmology. 1984;91:1313–26.
Smee RI, Schneider M, Williams JR. Optic nerve sheath meningiomas – non-surgical treatment. Clin Oncol. 2009;21:8–13.
Smith JL, McCrary JA III, Ray BS, et al. Managing menacing meningiomas. J Clin Neuroophthalmol. 1983;3:169–79.
Spagnoli MV, Goldberg HI, Grossman RI, et al. Intracranial meningiomas: high-field MR imaging. Radiology. 1986;161:369–75.
Turbin RE, Pokorny K. Diagnosis and treatment of orbital optic nerve sheath meningioma. Cancer Control. 2004;11:334–41.
Turbin RE, Thompson CR, Kennerdell JS, et al. A long-term visual outcome comparison in patients with optic nerve sheath meningioma managed with observation, surgery, radiotherapy, or surgery and radiotherapy. Ophthalmology. 2002;109:890–900.
Wilson WB. Meningiomas of the anterior visual system. Surv Ophthalmol. 1981;26:109–27.
Wright JE. Primary optic nerve meningiomas: clinical presentation and management. Ophthalmology. 1977;83:617–25.
Wright JE, Call NB, Liaricos S. Primary optic nerve meningioma. Br J Ophthalmol. 1980;64:553–8.
Wright JE, McNab AA, McDonald WI. Primary optic nerve sheath meningioma. Br J Ophthalmol. 1989;73:960–6.
Zimmerman CF, Schatz NJ, Glaser JS. Magnetic resonance imaging of optic nerve meningiomas. Enhancement with gadolinium-DTPA. Ophthalmology. 1990;97:585–91.
Neural Tumors: Plexiform Neurofibroma
Chopra R, Morris CG, Friedman WA, et al. Radiotherapy and radiosurgery for benign neurofibromas. Am J Clin Oncol. 2005;28:317–20.
Farris SR, Grove AS Jr. Orbital and eyelid manifestations of neurofibromatosis: a clinical study and literature review. Ophthal Plast Reconstr Surg. 1996;12:245–59.
Garrity JA, Henderson JW. Henderson’s orbital tumors edition. 4th ed. Philadelphia: Lippincott Williams and Wilkins; 2007.
Gurland JE, Tenner M, Hornblass A, et al. Orbital neurofibromatosis. Arch Ophthalmol. 1976;94:1723–5.
Kobrin JL, Blodi FC, Weingeist TA. Ocular and orbital manifestations of neurofibromatosis. Surv Ophthalmol. 1979;24:45.
Kretschmer T, Nguyen DH, Beuerman RW, et al. Elevated ankyrin G in a plexiform neurofibroma and neuromas associated with pain. J Clin Neurosci. 2004;11:6–9.
McCarron KF, Goldblum JR. Plexiform neurofibroma with and without associated malignant peripheral nerve sheath tumor: a clinicopathologic and immunohistochemical analysis of 54 cases. Mod Pathol. 1998;11:612–7.
Reed D, Robertson WD, Rootman J, Douglas G. Plexiform neurofibromatosis of the orbit: CT evaluation. Am J Neuroradiol. 1986;7:259–63.
Santaolalla F, Sanchez JM, Ereno C, et al. Severe exophthalmos in trigeminal plexiform neurofibroma involving the orbit and infratemporal fossa. J Clin Neurosci. 2009;16:970–2.
Shields JA, Shields CL, Scartozzi R. Survey of 1264 patients with orbital tumors and simulating lesions: the 2002 Montgomery Lecture, part 1. Ophthalmology. 2004;11:997–1008.
Tada M, Sawamura Y, Ishii N, Chin S, Abe H. Massive plexiform neurofibroma in the orbit in a child with von Recklinghausen’s disease. Childs Nerv Syst. 1998;14:210–2.
Woog JJ, Albert DM, Solt LC, et al. Neurofibromatosis of the eyelid and orbit. Int Ophthalmol Clin. 1982;22:157.
Wood JJ, Albert DM, Solt LC, Hu DN, Wang WJ. Neurofibromatosis of the eyeball and orbit. Int Ophthalmol Clin. 1982;22:157–87.
Zimmerman RA, Bilaniuk LT, Metzger RA, et al. Computed tomography of orbital facial neurofibromatosis. Radiology. 1983;146:113–6.
Neural Tumors: Schwannoma
Allman M, Frayer W, Hedges T. Orbital neurilemoma. Ann Ophthalmol. 1977;9:1409–13.
Bavetta S, McFall MR, Afshar F, Hutchinson I. Schwannoma of the anterior cranial fossa and paranasal sinuses. Br J Neurosurg. 1993;7:697–700.
Bergin DJ, Parmley V. Blepharochalasis. Arch Ophthalmol. 1988;106:414–5.
Butt ZA, McNab AA. Orbital neurilemmoma: report of seven cases. J Clin Neurosci. 1998;5:390–3.
Cantore G, Ciappetta P, Raco A, Lunardi P. Orbital schwannomas: report of nine cases and review of the literature. Neurosurgery. 1986;19:583–8.
Capps DH, Brodsky MC, Rice CD, et al. Orbital intramuscular schwannoma. Am J Ophthalmol. 1990;110:535–9.
Celli P, Ferrante L, Acqui M, et al. Neurinoma of the third, fourth, and sixth cranial nerves: a survey and report of a new fourth nerve case. Surg Neurol. 1992;38:216–24.
Chisholm IA, Polyzoidis K. Recurrence of benign orbital neurilemmoma (schwannoma) after 22 years. Can J Ophthalmol. 1982;17:271–3.
De Silva DJ, Tay E, Rose GE. Schwannomas of the lacrimal gland fossa. Orbit. 2009;28:433–5.
Faucett DC, Dutton JJ, Bullard DE. Gasserian ganglion schwannoma with orbital extension. Ophthal Plast Reconstr Surg. 1989;5:235–8.
Jakobiec FA, Font RL, et al. Peripheral nerve sheath tumors. In: Spencer WH, Font RL, Green WR, editors. Ophthalmic pathology. An atlas and textbook. Philadelphia: WB Saunders; 1986. p. 2603–32.
Kansu T, Ozcan OE, Ozdirim E, et al. Neurinoma of the oculomotor nerve. J Clin Neuroophthalmol. 1982;2:271–2.
Kashyap S, Pushker N, Meel R, et al. Orbital schwannoma with cystic degeneration. Clin Exp Ophthalmol. 2009;37:293–8.
Kiratli H, Yildiz S, Soylemezoglu F. Neurofibromatosis type 2: optic nerve sheath meningioma in one orbit, intramuscular schwannoma in the other. Orbit. 2008;27:451–4.
Lam DS, Ng JS, To KF, et al. Cystic schwannoma of the orbit. Eye. 1997;11:798–800.
Shen WC, Yang DY, Ho WL, Ho YJ, Lee SK. Neurilemmoma of the oculomotor nerve presenting as an orbital mass: MR findings. Am J Neuroradiol. 1993;14:1253–4.
Shields JA, Kapustiak J, Arbizo V, Augsburger JJ, Schnitzer RE. Orbital neurilemoma with extension through the superior orbital fissure. Arch Ophthalmol. 1986;104:871–3.
Simpson RK, Harper RL, Kirkpatrick JB, et al. Schwannomas of the optic nerve sheath. J Clin Neuroophthalmol. 1987;7:219–22.
Neural Tumors: Solitary Neurofibroma
De Potter P, Shields CL, Shields JA, et al. The CT and MRI features of an unusual case of isolated neurofibroma. Ophthal Plast Reconstr Surg. 1992;8:221–7.
DePotter P, Shields CL, Shields JA. The CT features of an unusual case of isolated orbital neurofibroma. Ophthal Plast Reconstr Surg. 1992;8:221–7.
Garrity JA, Henderson JW. Henderson’s orbital tumors edition: 4th ed. Philadelphia: Lippincott Williams and Wilkins; 2007.
Kottler UB, Conway RM, Schlotzer-Schrehardt U, Holbach LM. Isolated neurofibroma of the orbit with extensive myxoid changes: a clinicopathologic study including MRI and electron microscopic findings. Orbit. 2004;23:59–64.
Krohl GB, Rosenberg PN, Wright JE, Smith RS. Localized orbital neurofibromas. Am J Ophthalmol. 1985;100:458–64.
Lee LR, Gigantelli JW, Kincaid MC. Localized neurofibroma of the orbit: a radiographic and histopathologic study. Ophthal Plast Reconstr Surg. 2000;16:241–6.
Linder B, Campos M, Schafer M. CT and MRI of orbital abnormalities in neurofibromatosis and selected craniofacial anomalies. Radiol Clin N Am. 1987;25:787–802.
Meyer DR, Wobig JL. Bilateral localized orbital neurofibromas. Ophthalmology. 1992;99:1313–7.
Park WC, White WA, Woog JJ, et al. The role of high-resolution computed tomography and magnetic resonance imaging in the evaluation of isolated orbital neurofibromas. Am J Ophthalmol. 2006;142:456–63.
Shields JA, Shields CL, Lieb WE, Eagle RC. Multiple orbital neurofibromas unassociated with von Recklinghausen’s disease. Arch Ophthalmol. 1990;108:80–3.
Neural Tumors: Sphenoid Wing Meningioma
Anderson D, Khalil M. Meningiomas and the ophthalmologist. A review of 80 cases. Ophthalmology. 1981;88:1004–9.
Anderson D, Khalil MK. Meningioma and the ophthalmologist: diagnostic pitfalls. Can J Ophthalmol. 1981;16:10–5.
Basso A, Carrizo AG, Duma C. Sphenoid wing meningiomas. In: Sweet WH, editor. Operative neurosurgical techniques, vol. 1. Philadelphia: Saunders; 2000. p. 316–24.
Black PM. Meningiomas. Neurosurgery. 1993;32:643–57.
Bleeker GM. Orbital meningioma. Orbit. 1984;3:3–17.
Bydder GM, Kingsley DPE, Brown J, Niendorf HP, Young IR. MR imaging of meningiomas including studies with and without gadolinium-DTPA. J Comput Assist Tomogr. 1985;9:690–7.
Elster AD, Challa VR, Gilbert TH, Richardson DN, Contento JC. Meningiomas: MR and histopathologic features. Radiology. 1989;170:857–62.
Goldsmith BJ, Wara WM, Wilson CB, Larson DA. Postoperative irradiation for subtotally resected meningiomas. A retrospective analysis of 140 patients treated from 1967 to 1990. J Neurosurg. 1994;80:195–201.
Heufelder MJ, Sterker I, Trantakis C, et al. Reconstructive and ophthalmologic outcomes following resection of spheno-orbital meningiomas. Ophthal Plast Reconstr Surg. 2009;25:223–6.
Jakobiec FA, Depot MJ, Kennerdell JS, et al. Combined clinical and computed tomographic diagnosis of orbital glioma and meningioma. Ophthalmology. 1984;91:137–55.
Lee S, Maronian N, Most SP, et al. Porous high-density polyethylene for orbital reconstruction. Arch Otolaryngol Head Neck Surg. 2005;131:446–50.
Lieb WE, Rochels R, Wallenfang T, Ahl G. Ophthalmologic symptoms in meningioma of the orbits and in the anterior and medial cranial fossa. Fortschr Ophthalmol. 1994;91:41–5.
Mathiesen T, Lindquist C, Kihlstrom L, Karlsson B. Recurrence of cranial base meningiomas. Neurosurgery. 1996;39:2–7.
McGovern SL, Aldape KD, Munsell MF, et al. A comparison of World Health Organization tumor grades at recurrence in patients with non-skull base and skull base meningiomas. J Neurosurg. 2010;112:925–33.
Newall FW, Beaman TC. Ocular signs of meningioma. Trans Am Ophthalmol Soc. 1957;55:297–312.
Peele KA, Kennerdell JS, Maroon JC, Kalnicki S, et al. Role of postoperative irradiation in the management of sphenoid wing meningiomas. A preliminary report. Ophthalmology. 1996;103:1766–7.
Pritz MB, Burgett RA. Spheno-orbital reconstruction after meningioma resection. Skull Base. 2009;19:163–7.
Rodrigues MM, Savino PJ, Schatz NJ. Spheno-orbital meningioma with optociliary veins. Am J Ophthalmol. 1976;81:666–70.
Sandalcioglu IE, Gasser T, Mohr C, et al. Spheno-orbital meningiomas: interdisciplinary approach, resectability and long-term results. J Craniomaxillofac Surg. 2005;33:260–6.
Schick U, Bleyen J, Bani A, Hassler W. Management of meningiomas en plaque of the sphenoid wing. J Neurosurg. 2006;104:208–14.
Spagnoli MV, Goldberg HI, Grossman RI, et al. Intracranial meningiomas: high-field MR imaging. Radiology. 1986;161:369–75.
Stafford SL, Pollock BE, Foote RL, et al. Meningioma radiosurgery: tumor control, outcomes, and complications among 190 consecutive patients. Neurosurgery. 2001;49:1029–37.
Terstegge K, Schorner W, Henkes H, et al. Hyperostosis in meningiomas: MR findings in patients with recurrent meningioma of the sphenoid wings. Am J Neuroradiol. 1994;15:55–560.
Wilson WB. Meningiomas of the anterior visual system. Surv Ophthalmol. 1981;26:109–27.
Wilson WB, Gordon M, Lehman RAW. Meningiomas confined to the optic canal and foramina. Surg Neurol. 1979;12:21–8.
Yao YT. Clinicopathologic analysis of 615 cases of meningioma with special reference to recurrence. J Formos Med Assoc. 1994;93:145–52.
Mesenchymal Tumors: Fibrosarcoma
Dallet RW. Fibrous histiocytoma and fibrous tissue tumors of the orbit. Radiol Clin N Am. 1999;37:185–94.
Eifrig DE, Foos RY. Fibrosarcoma of the orbit. Am J Ophthalmol. 1969;67:244–8.
Guthikonda B, Hanna EY, Skoracki RJ, et al. Ameloblastic fibrosarcoma involving the anterior and middle skull base with intradural extension. J Craniofac Surg. 2009;20:2087–90.
Lee MJ, Cairns RA, Munk PL, Poon PY. Congenital-infantile fibrosarcoma: magnetic resonance imaging findings. Can Assoc Radiol J. 1996;47:121.
Ohtsuka K, Saito K. Primary orbital fibrosarcoma developing in the scleral stroma. Br J Ophthalmol. 1996;80:932–3.
Plaza G, Ferrando J, Pinedo F. Sinonasal fibrosarcoma: a case report. Eur Arch Otorhinolaryngol. 2006;263:641–3.
Scott SM, Reiman HM, Ppritchard DJ, et al. Soft tissue fibrosarcoma: a clinicopathologic study of 132 cases. Cancer. 1989;64:225–31.
Weiner JM, Hidayat AA. Juvenile fibrosarcoma of the orbit and eyelid: a study of five cases. Arch Ophthalmol. 1983;101:253–9.
Yanoff M, Scheie HG. Fibrosarcoma of the orbit: report of two patients. Cancer. 1966;19:1711–6.
Mesenchymal Tumors: Fibrous Histiocytoma
Al-Hazzaa SA, Specht CS, McLean IW, Holds JB, Anderson RL. Benign orbital fibrous histiocytoma simulating a lacrimal gland tumor. Ophthalmic Surg Lasers. 1996;27:140–2.
Arora R, Monga S, Mehta DK, et al. Malignant fibrous histiocytoma of the conjunctiva. Clin Exp Ophthalmol. 2006;34:275–8.
Bajaj MS, Pushker N, Kashyap S, et al. Fibrous histiocytoma of the lacrimal gland. Ophthal Plast Reconstr Surg. 2007;23:145–7.
Balestrazzi E, Ventura T, Delle Noci N, et al. Malignant conjunctival epibulbar fibrous histiocytoma with orbital invasion. Eur J Ophthalmol. 1991;1:23–7.
Biedner B, Rothkoff L. Orbital fibrous histiocytoma in an infant. Am J Ophthalmol. 1978;85:548–50.
Boehilke CS, Frueh BR, Flint A, Elner VM. Malignant fibrous histiocytoma of the lateral conjunctiva and anterior orbit. Ophthal Plast Reconstr Surg. 2007;23:338–40.
Boynton JR, Markowitch W Jr, Searl SS, Presser SE, Quatela VC. Periocular malignant fibrous histiocytoma. Ophthal Plast Reconstr Surg. 1989;5:239–46.
Caballero LR, Rodriguez AC, Sopelana AB. Angiomatoid fibrous histiocytoma of the orbit. Am J Ophthalmol. 1981;92:13–5.
Char D, Caputo G, Miller T. Orbital fibrous histiocytomas. Orbit. 2000;19:155–9.
Cole SH, Ferry AP. Fibrous histiocytoma (fibrous xanthoma) of the lacrimal sac. Arch Ophthalmol. 1978;96:1647–9.
Font RL, Hidayat AA. Fibrous histiocytoma of the orbit. A clinicopathologic study of 150 cases. Hum Pathol. 1982;13:199–209.
Gupta VP, Saxena T, Dev G. Fibrous histiocytoma in primary pterygium. Orbit. 2002;21:217–21.
Hirano N, Sasaki A, Watanabe T, et al. Malignant fibrous histiocytoma of the lateral wall of the orbit. Neurol Med Chir (Tokyo). 1996;36:246–50.
Jacomb-Hood J, Moseley IF. Orbital fibrous histiocytoma: computed tomography in 10 cases and a review of radiologic findings. Clin Radiol. 1991;43:117–20.
Jakobiec FA, Howard GM, Jones IS, et al. Fibrous histiocytoma of the orbit. Am J Ophthalmol. 1974;77:333–45.
Jakobiec FA, Klapper D, Maher E, Krebs W. Infantile subconjunctival and anterior orbital fibrous histiocytoma. Ultrastructural and immunohistochemical studies. Ophthalmology. 1988;95:516–25.
John T, Yanoff M, Scheie HG. Eyelid fibrous histiocytoma. Ophthalmology. 1981;88:1193–5.
Krohel GB, Gregor D. Fibrous histiocytoma. J Pediatr Ophthalmol. 1980;17:37–9.
Larkin DF, O’Donoghue HN, Mullaney J, Breatnach F. Orbital fibrous histiocytoma in an infant. Acta Ophthalmol. 1988;66:585–8.
Lui D, McCann P, Kini RK, Joliat TL. Malignant fibrous histiocytoma of the orbit in a 3-year-old girl. Arch Ophthalmol. 1987;105:895–6.
Marback RL, Kincaid MC, Green WR, et al. Fibrous histiocytoma of the lacrimal sac. Am J Ophthalmol. 1982;93:511–7.
Milman T, Finger PT, Iacob C, et al. Fibrous histiocytoma. Ophthalmology. 2007;114:2369–70.
Milman T, Finger PT, Iacob C, et al. Fibrous histiocytoma. Ophthalmologica. 2007;114:2369.
Paglen PG, Kracher DS, McMahon RT. Fibrous histiocytoma of the conjunctiva. Ann Ophthalmol. 1980;12:522–5.
Rodriguez MM, Furgiuele FP, Weinreb S. Malignant fibrous histiocytoma of the orbit. Arch Ophthalmol. 1977;95:2025–8.
Ros PR, Kursunoglu S, Battle JF, Sheldon JJ, Glaser J. Malignant fibrous histiocytoma of the orbit. J Clin Neuroophthalmol. 1985;5:116–9.
Shields JA, Husson M, Chields CL, et al. Orbital malignant fibrous histiocytoma following irradiation for retinoblastoma. Ophthal Plast Reconstr Surg. 2001;17:58–61.
Stewart WB, Newman NM, Cavender JC, Spencer WH. Fibrous histiocytoma metastatic to the orbit. Arch Ophthalmol. 1978;96:871–3.
Verity MA, Ebert JT, Helper RS. Atypical fibrous histiocytoma of the orbit: an electron-microscopic study. Ophthalmologica. 1977;175:73–9.
Mesenchymal Tumors: Juvenile Xanthogranuloma
Borrego O, Hidayat AA. Solitary juvenile xanthogranuloma of the orbit. Orbit. 1996;15:41–5.
Freyer DR, Kennedy R, Bostrom BC, et al. Juvenile xanthogranuloma: forms of systemic disease and their clinical implications. J Pediatr. 1996;129:227–37.
Kaur H, Cameron JD, Mohney BG. Severe astigmatic amblyopia secondary to subcutaneous juvenile xanthogranuloma of the eyelid. J AAPOS. 2006;10:277–8.
Kuruvilla R, Escaravage GK, Finn AJ, Dutton JJ. Infiltrative subcutaneous juvenile xanthogranuloma of the eyelid in a neonate. Ophthal Plast Reconstr Surg. 2009;25:330–2.
Miszkiel KA, Sohaib SA, Rose GE, et al. Radiological and clinicopathological features of orbital xanthogranuloma. Br J Ophthalmol. 2000;84:251–8.
Schwartz TL, Carter KD, Judisch F, et al. Congenital macronodular juvenile xanthogranuloma of the eyelid. Ophthalmology. 1991;98:1230–3.
Shields CL, Shields JA, Buchanon HW. Solitary orbital involvement with juvenile xanthogranuloma. Arch Ophthalmol. 1990;108:1587–9.
Shin HT, Harris MB, Orlow SJ. Juvenile myelomonocytic leukemia presenting with features of hemophagocytic lymphohistiocytosis in association with neurofibromatosis and juvenile xanthogranulomas. J Pediatr Hematol Oncol. 2004;26:591–5.
Sonoda T, Hashimoto H, Enjoji M. Juvenile xanthogranuloma. Clinicopathologic analysis and immunohistochemical study of 57 patients. Cancer. 1985;56:2280–6.
Weitzman S, Jaffe R. Uncommon histiocytic disorders: the non-Langerhans cell histiocytosis. Pediatr Blood Cancer. 2005;45:256–64.
Zimmerman LE. Ocular lesions of juvenile xanthogranuloma. Nevoxanthoendotheiloma. Am J Ophthalmol. 1965;60:1011–35.
Mesenchymal Tumors: Leiomyosarcoma
Arora R, Betharia SM. Aspiration cytology of smooth-muscle tumours of the orbit. Orbit. 1990;9:35–41.
Bakri SJ, Krohel GB, Peters GB, Farber MG. Spermatic cord leiomyosarcoma metastatic to the orbit. Am J Ophthalmol. 2003;136:213–5.
Conlon MR, Rubin PA, Samy CN, Albert DM. Metastatic orbital leiomyosarcoma. Can J Ophthalmol. 1994;29:85–9.
Das DK, Das J, Kumar D, et al. Leiomyosarcoma of the orbit: diagnosis of its recurrence by fine-needle aspiration cytology. Diagn Cytopathol. 1992;8:609–13.
Folberg R, Cleaseby G, Flanagan JA, Spencer WH, Zimmerman LE. Orbital leiomyosarcoma after radiation therapy for bilateral retinoblastoma. Arch Ophthalmol. 1983;101:1562–5.
Font RL, Jurco S III, Brechner RJ. Postradiation leiomyosarcoma of the orbit complicating bilateral retinoblastoma. Arch Ophthalmol. 1983;101:1557–61.
Hou LC, Murphy MA, Tung GA. Primary orbital leiomyosarcoma: a case report with MRI findings. Am J Ophthalmol. 2003;135(3):408–10.
Jakobiec FA, Howard G, Rosen M, et al. Leiomyoma and leiomyosarcoma of the orbit. Am J Ophthalmol. 1975;80:1028–42.
Jakobiec FA, Mitchell JP, Chauhan PM, Iwamoto T. Mesectodermal leiomyosarcoma of the antrum and orbit. Am J Ophthalmol. 1978;85:51–7.
Kaltreider SA, Destro M, Lemke BN. Leiomyosarcoma of the orbit. A case report and review of the literature. Ophthal Plast Reconstr Surg. 1987;3:35–41.
Logrono R, Inhorn SL, Dortzbach RK, Kurtycz DF. Leiomyosarcoma metastatic to the orbit: diagnosis of fine-needle aspiration. Diagn Cytopathol. 1997;17:369–73.
Meekins BB, Dutton JJ, Proia AD. Primary orbital leiomyosarcoma. Arch Ophthalmol. 1988;106:82–6.
Mihara F, Gupta KL, Kartchner ZA, Kogutt MS, Robinson AE. Leiomyosarcoma after retinoblastoma radiotherapy. Radiat Med. 1991;9:183–4.
Minkovitz JB, Dickersin GR, Dallow RL, Albert DM. Leiomyosarcoma metastatic to the orbit. Arch Ophthalmol. 1990;108:1525–6.
Suankratay C, Shuangshoti S, Mutirangura A, et al. Epstein-Barr virus infection-associated smooth muscle tumors in patients with AIDS. Clin Infect Dis. 2005;40:1521–8.
Tanaka H, Westesson PL, Wilbur DC. Leiomyosarcoma of the maxillary sinus: CT and MRI findings. Br J Radiol. 1998;71:221–4.
Voros GM, Birchall D, Ressiniotis T, Neoh C, Owen RI, Strong NP. Imaging of metastatic orbital leiomyosarcoma. Ophthal Plast Reconstr Surg. 2005;21(6):453–5.
Wiechens B, Werner JA, Luttges J, et al. Primary orbital leiomyoma and leiomyosarcoma. Ophthalmologica. 1999;213:159–64.
Wojno T, Tenzel RR, Nadji M. Orbital leiomyosarcoma. Arch Ophthalmol. 1983;101:1566–8.
Mesenchymal Tumors: Lipoblastomatosis
Adams RJ, Drwiega PJ, Rivera CA. Congenital orbital lipoblastoma: a pathologic and radiologic study. J Pediatr Ophthalmol Strabismus. 1997;34:194–6.
Chung EB, Enzinger FM. Benign lipoblastomatosis: an analysis of 35 cases. Cancer. 1973;32:482–92.
Dilley AV, Patel DL, Hicks MJ, Brandt ML. Lipoblastoma: path physiology and surgical management. J Pediatr Surg. 2001;36(1):229–31.
Enghardt MH, Warren RC. Congenital palpebral lipoblastoma. First report of a case. Am J Dermatopathol. 1990;12:408–11.
Greco MA, Garcia RL, Vuletin JC. Benign lipoblastomatosis: ultrastructure and histogenesis. Cancer. 1980;45:511–5.
Hicks J, Dilley A, Patel D, et al. Lipoblastoma and lipoblastomatosis in infancy and childhood: histopathologic, ultrastructural, and cytogenetic features. Ultrastruct Pathol. 2001;25(4):321–33.
Jung SM, Chang PY, Luo CC, et al. Lipoblastoma/lipoblastomatosis: a clinicopathologic study of 16 cases in Taiwan. Pediatr Surg Int. 2005;21:809–12.
Seider N, Gilboa M, Barishak YR, Miller B. Congenital combined orbito-nasal lipoblastoma: clinico-pathologic study. Orbit. 2007;26:125–7.
Mesenchymal Tumors: Benign Cartilaginous Tumors
Albert DM, Ni C, Sebag J, Renna T. Rare orbital tumors. Int Ophthalmol Clin. 1981;22:183–204.
Blodi FC. Pathology of orbital bones. The XXXII Edward Jackson Memorial Lecture. Am J Ophthalmol. 1976;81:1–26.
Bowen JH, Christensen FH, Klintworth GK, Sydnor CF. A clinicopathologic study of a cartilaginous hamartoma of the orbit: a rare cause of proptosis. Ophthalmology. 1981;88:135–60.
Harrison A, Loftus S, Pambuccian S. Orbital chondroma. Ophthal Plast Reconstr Surg. 2006;22:484–5.
Jepson CN, Wetzig PC. Pure chondroma of the trochlea; a case report. Surv Ophthalmol. 1966;11:656–9.
Pasternak S, O’Connell JX, Verchere C, Rootman J. Enchondroma of the orbit. Am J Ophthalmol. 1996;122:444–5.
Selva D, White VA, O’Connell JX, Rootman J. Primary bone tumors of the orbit. Surv Ophthalmol. 2004;49:328–42.
Tashiro T, Inoue Y, Nemoto Y, Shakudo M, et al. Magnetic resonance imaging of chordoma and chondroma in the skull base. Differential diagnosis by IR sequence. Nippon Acta Radiologica. 1992;52:589–93.
Terasaka S, Sawamura Y, Abe H. Surgical removal of a cavernous sinus chondroma. Surg Neurol. 1997;48:153–9.
Mesenchymal Tumors: Lipodermoid
Beard C. Dermolipoma surgery, or, “an ounce of prevention is worth a pound of cure”. Ophthal Plast Reconstr Surg. 1990;6:153–7.
Craitoiu S. Goldenhar’s oculoauricular dysplasia, limbic dermoid and conjunctival dermolipoma. Oftalmologia. 1992;36:357–61.
Economidis I, Tragakis M, Mangouritsas N, Papademetriou D. Keratoconjuntivitis sicca following excision of a dermolipoma of the lacrimal gland. Ann Ophthalmol. 1978;10:1273–8.
Eijpe AA, Koornneef L, Bras J, et al. Dermolipoma: characteristic CT appearance. Doc Ophthalmol. 1990;74:321–8.
Francois P, Lekieffre M, Woillez M, Ryckewaert M. Complications of dermolipoma ablation. Bull Soc Ophtalmol Fr. 1989;89:289–90.
Fry CL, Leone CR Jr. Safe management of dermolipomas. Arch Ophthalmol. 1994;112:1114–6.
Kim YD, Goldberg RA. Orbital fat prolapse and dermolipoma: two distinct entities. Korean J Ophthalmol. 1994;8:42–3.
McNab AA, Wright JE, Caswell AG. Clinical features and surgical management of dermolipomas. Aust N Z J Ophthalmol. 1990;18:159–62.
Paris GL, Beard C. Blepharoptosis following dermolipoma surgery. Ann Ophthalmol. 1973;5:697–9.
Rootman J. Structural lesions. Dermolipoma. Diseases of the orbit. 2nd ed. Philadelphia: Lippincott, Williams and Wilkins; 2003. p. 298–301.
Shields CL, Shields JA. Tumors of the conjunctiva and cornea. Surv Ophthalmol. 2004;49:3–24.
Shields CL, Shields JA. Conjunctival tumors in children. Curr Opin Ophthalmol. 2007;18(5):351–60.
Shields CL, Dermirci H, Karatza E, et al. Clinical survey of 1643 melanocytic and nonmelanocytic tumors of the conjunctiva. Ophthalmology. 2004;111:1747–54.
Mesenchymal Tumors: Lipoma
Bartley GB, Yeatts RP, Garrity JA, et al. Spindle cell lipoma of the orbit. Am J Ophthalmol. 1985;100:605–9.
Behrendt S, Werner JA, Janig U. Lipoma of the orbit. Orbit. 1996;15:101–4.
Brown HH, Kersten RC, Kulwin DR. Lipomatous hamartoma of the orbit. Arch Ophthalmol. 1991;109:240–3.
Daniel CS, Beaconsfield M, Rose GE, et al. Pleomorphic lipoma of orbit: a case series and review of literature. Ophthalmology. 2003;110:101–5.
Dutton JJ, Wright JJ. Intramuscular lipoma of the superior oblique muscle. Orbit. 2006;25:227–33.
Feinfield RE, Hesse RJ, Scharfenberg JC. Orbital angiolipoma. Arch Ophthalmol. 1988;106:1093–5.
Iliff WJ, Green WR. Orbital tumors in children. In: Jakobiec FA, editor. Ocular and adnexal tumors. Birmingham: Aesculapius; 1978. p. 669–84.
Johansen S, Heegaard S, Bogeskov L, Prause JU. Orbital space-occupying lesions in Denmark 1974–1997. Acta Ophthalmol Scand. 2000;78:547–52.
Mawn LA, Jordan DR, Olberg B. Spindle-cell lipoma of the preseptal eyelid. Ophthal Plast Reconstr Surg. 1998;14:174–7.
Shah NB, Chang WY, White VA, et al. Orbital Lipoma: 2 cases and review of literature. Ophthal Plast Reconstr Surg. 2007;23:202–5.
Shields JA, Shields CL, Scartozzi R, et al. Survey of 1264 patients with orbital tumors and simulating lesions: the 2002 Montgomery Lecture, part 1. Ophthalmology. 2004;111:997–1008.
Silva D. Orbital tumors. Am J Ophthalmol. 1968;65:318–39.
Mesenchymal Tumors: Liposarcoma
Abdalla MI, Ghaly AF, Hosni F. Liposarcoma with orbital metastases: case report. Br J Ophthalmol. 1966;50:426–8.
Cai YC, McMenamin ME, Rose G, et al. Primary liposarcoma of the orbit: a clinicopathologic study of seven cases. Ann Diagn Pathol. 2001;5:255–6.
Cockerman KP, Kennerdell JS, Celin SE, FEchter HP. Liposarcoma of the orbit: a management challenge. Ophthal Plast Reconstr Surg. 1998;14:370–4.
Enterline HT, Culberson JD, Rochlin DB, et al. Liposarcoma: a clinical and pathological study of 53 cases. Cancer. 1960;13:932–50.
Fabi A, Salesi N, Vidiri A, Mirri A, et al. Retroperitoneal liposarcoma with metastasis to both orbits: an unusual metastatic site. Anticancer Res. 2005;25:4769–71.
Favrot SR, Ridley MB, Older JJ, et al. Orbital liposarcoma. Otolaryngol Head Neck Surg. 1994;111:111–5.
Fezza J, Sinard J. Metastatic liposarcoma to the orbit. Am J Ophthalmol. 1997;123:271–2.
Jakobiec FA, Rini F, Char D, et al. Primary liposarcoma of the orbit: problems in the diagnosis and management of five cases. Ophthalmology. 1989;86:180–91.
McNab AA, Moseley I. Primary orbital liposarcoma: clinical and computed tomographic features. Br J Ophthalmol. 1990;74:437–9.
Montiero MLR. Liposarcoma of the orbit presenting as an enlarged medial rectus muscle on CT scan. Br J Ophthalmol. 2002;86:1450.
Mridha AR, Sharma MC, Sarkar C, et al. Primary liposarcoma of the orbit: a report of two cases. Can J Ophthalmol. 2007;42:481–3.
Nasr AM, Ossoinig KC, Kersten RF, Blodi FC. Standardized echographic-histopathologic correlations in liposarcoma. Am J Ophthalmol. 1985;99:193–200.
Saeed MU, Chang BY, Atherley C, et al. A rare diagnosis of dedifferentiated liposarcoma of the orbit. Orbit. 2007;26:43–5.
Wagle MA, Biswas J, Subramaniam N, et al. Primary liposarcoma of the orbit: a clinicopathologic study. Orbit. 1999;18:1213–23.
Mesenchymal Tumors: Rhabdomyosarcoma
Abramson DH, Notis CM. Visual acuity after radiation for orbital rhabdomyosarcoma. Am J Ophthalmol. 1994;118:808–9.
Boparai MS, Dash RG. Clinical, ultrasonographic and CT evaluation of orbital rhabdomyosarcoma with management. Indian J Ophthalmol. 1991;39:129–31.
Breen LA, Kline LB, Hart WM Jr, Burde RM. Rhabdomyosarcoma causing rapid bilateral visual loss in children. J Clin Neuroophthalmol. 1984;4:185–8.
Fekrat S, Miller NR, Loury MC. Alveolar rhabdomyosarcoma that metastasized to the orbit. Arch Ophthalmol. 1993;111:1662–4.
Frilling R, Marcus M, Monos T, Moses M, Yassur Y. Rhabdomyosarcoma invading the orbit in an adult. Ophthal Plast Reconstr Surg. 1994;10:283–6.
Ghafoor SY, Dudgeon J. Orbital rhabdomyosarcoma: improved survival with combined pulsed chemotherapy and irradiation. Br J Ophthalmol. 1985;69:557–61.
Hatton MP, Green L, Boulos PR, Rubin PA. Rhabdomyosarcoma metastases to all extraocular muscles. Ophthal Plast Reconstr Surg. 2008;24(4):336–8.
Huh WW, Beverly RR. Orbital metastasis in patients with rhabdomyosarcoma: case series and review of the literature. J Pediatr Hematol Oncol. 2006;28(10):684–7.
Humpl T, Bruhl K, Pitz S, et al. Rhabdomyosarcoma of the orbits in childhood. Ophtalmologie. 1997;94:914–9.
Jones IS, Reese AB, Kraut J. Orbital rhabdomyosarcoma: an analysis of sixty-two cases. Trans Am Ophthalmol Soc. 1965;63:223–55.
Judmaier W, Birbamer G, Buchberger W, et al. MR imaging of late onset orbital rhabdomyosarcoma with intracranial extension. Magn Reson Imaging. 1993;11:285–8.
Knowles DM, Jakobiec FA, Potter GD, Jones IS. Ophthalmic striated muscle neoplasms. Surv Ophthalmol. 1976;21:219–61.
Kodet R, Newton WA, Hamoudi AB, et al. Orbital rhabdomyosarcoma and related tumors in childhood: relationship of morphology to prognosis – an Intergroup Rhabdomyosarcoma study. Med Pediatr Oncol. 1997;29:51–60.
Mamalis N, Grey AM, Good JS, McLeish WM, Anderson RL. Embryonal rhabdomyosarcoma of the orbit in a 35-year-old man. Ophthalmic Surg. 1994;25:332–5.
Mannor GE, Rose GE, Plowman PN, et al. Multidisciplinary management of refractory orbital rhabdomyosarcoma. Ophthalmology. 1997;104:1198–202.
McDonald MW, Esiashvili N, George BA, Katzenstein HM, Olson TA, Rapkin LB, et al. Intensity-modulated radiotherapy with use of cone-down boost for pediatric head-and-neck rhabdomyosarcoma. Int J Radiat Oncol Biol Phys. 2008;72(3):884–91.
Meza JL, Anderson J, Pappo AS, Meyer WH, Children’s Oncology Group. Analysis of prognostic factors in patients with nonmetastatic rhabdomyosarcoma treated on intergroup rhabdomyosarcoma studies III and IV: the Children’s Oncology Group. J Clin Oncol. 2006;24(24):3844–51.
Notis CM, Abramson DH, Sagerman RH, Ellsworth RM. Orbital rhabdomyosarcoma: treatment or overtreatment. Ophthalmic Genet. 1995;16:159–62.
Porterfield JF, Zimmerman LE. Rhabdomyosarcoma of the orbit. Virchows Arch [A]. 1962;335:329–44.
Raney RB, Maurer HM, Anderson JR, et al. The Intergroup Rhabdomyosarcoma Study Group (IRSG): major lessons from the IRS-I through IRS-IV studies as background for the current IRS-V treatment protocols. Sarcoma. 2001;5:9–15.
Shields JA, Shields CL. Rhabdomyosarcoma of the orbit. Int Ophthalmol Clin. 1993;33:203–10.
Shields JA, Shields CL, Eagle RC Jr, Nowinski T. Orbital rhabdomyosarcoma. Arch Ophthalmol. 1987;105:700–1.
Sohaib SA, Moseley I, Wright JE. Orbital rhabdomyosarcoma – the radiologic characteristics. Clin Radiol. 1998;53:357–62.
Vade A, Armstrong D. Orbital rhabdomyosarcoma in childhood. Radiol Clin N Am. 1987;25:701–14.
Walton RC, Ellis GS Jr, Haik BG. Rhabdomyosarcoma presumed metastatic to the orbit. Ophthalmology. 1996;103:1512–6.
Wharam M, Beltangady M, Hays D, et al. Localized orbital rhabdomyosarcoma. An interim report of the Intergroup Rhabdomyosarcoma Study Committee. Ophthalmology. 1987;94:251–4.
Mesenchymal Tumors: Solitary Fibrous Tumor
Alexandrakis G, Johnson TE. Recurrent orbital solitary fibrous tumor in a 14-year-old girl. Am J Ophthalmol. 2000;130:373–6.
Bernardini FP, de Conciliis C, Schneider S, et al. Solitary fibrous tumor of the orbit: is it rare? Report of a case series and review of the literature. Ophthalmology. 2003;110:1442–8.
Carrera M, Prat J, Quintana M. Malignant solitary fibrous tumor of the orbit. Report of a case with 8 years of follow-up. Eye. 2001;15:102–4.
Dailey RW. Fibrous histiocytoma and fibrous tissue tumors of the orbit. Radiol Clin N Am. 1999;37:185–94.
DeBacker CM, Bodker F, Putterman AM, Beckmann E. Solitary fibrous tumor of the orbit. Am J Ophthalmol. 1996;121:447–9.
Dorfman DM, To K, Dickersin GR, et al. Solitary fibrous tumor of the orbit. Am J Surg Pathol. 1994;18:281–7.
Giuffre I, Faiola A, Bonanno E, Liccardo G. Solitary fibrous tumor of the orbit. Case report and review of the literature. Surg Neurol. 2001;56:242–6.
Ing EB, Kennerdell JS, Olson PR, Ogino S, Rothfus WE. Solitary fibrous tumor of the orbit. Ophthal Plast Reconstr Surg. 1998;14:57–61.
Kim HJ, Kim H-J, Kim Y-D, et al. Solitary fibrous tumor of the orbit: CT and MRI imaging findings. Am J Neuroradiol. 2008;29:857–62.
Krishnakumar S, Ubramanian N, Mohan ER, et al. Solitary fibrous tumor of the orbit: a clinicopathologic study of six cases with review of the literature. Surv Ophthalmol. 2003;48:544–54.
Leoncini G, Maio V, Puccioni M, et al. Orbital solitary fibrous tumor: a case report and review of the literature. Pathol Oncol Res. 2008;14:213–7.
Mascarenhas L, Lopes M, Duarte AM, et al. Histologically malignant solitary fibrous tumor of the orbit. Neurochirurgie. 2006;52:415–8.
Meyer D, Riley F. Solitary fibrous tumor of the orbit: a clinicopathologic entity that warrants both a heightened awareness and a traumatic surgical removal technique. Orbit. 2006;25:45–50.
Romer M, Bode B, Schuknecht B, Schmid S. Solitary fibrous tumor of the orbit; two cases and a review of the literature. Eur Arch Otorhinolaryngol. 2005;262:81–8.
Suzuki S. A case of malignant solitary fibrous tumor presenting with exophthalmos. Jpn J Clin Oncol. 2007;37:401.
Tam ES, Chen EC, Nijhawan N, et al. Solitary fibrous tumor of the orbit: a case series. Orbit. 2008;27:426–31.
Tumors of Bone: Aneurysmal Bone Cyst
Bealer LA, Cibis GW, Barker BF, et al. Aneurysmal bone cyst: report of a case mimicking orbital tumor. J Pediatr Ophthalmol Strabismus. 1993;30:199–200.
Borkar SA, Kasliwal MK, Sinha S, Sharma BS. MR imaging in aneurismal bone cyst of the orbit. Turk Neurosurg. 2008;18:183–6.
Citardi MJ, Janjua T, Abrahams JJ, Sasaki CT. Orbitoethmoid aneurysmal bone cyst. Otolaryngol Head Neck Surg. 1996;114:466–70.
Cory DA, Fritsch SA, Cohen MD, et al. Aneurysmal bone cysts: imaging findings and embolotherapy. Am J Roentgenol. 1989;153:369–73.
Fite JD, Schwarts JF, Calhoun FP. Aneurysmal bone cyst of the orbit. A clinicopathologic case report. Trans Am Acad Ophthalmol Otolaryngol. 1968;72:614–8.
Hino N, Ohtsuka K, Hashimoto M, Sakata M. Radiographic features of an aneurysmal bone cyst of the orbit. Ophthalmologica. 1998;212:198–201.
Hunter JV, Yokoyama C, Moseley IF, Wright JE. Aneurysmal bone cyst of the sphenoid with orbital involvement. Br J Ophthalmol. 1990;74:505–8.
Iraci G, Giordano R, Fiore D, et al. Exophthalmos from aneurysmal bone cyst of the orbital roof. Childs Brain. 1980;6:206–17.
Johnson TE, Bergin DJ, McCord CD. Aneurysmal bone cyst of the orbit. Ophthalmology. 1988;95:86–9.
Klepach GL, Ho RE, Kelly JK. Aneurysmal bone cyst of the orbit. A case report. J Clin Neuroophthalmol. 1984;4:49–52.
Marcol W, Mander M, Milnoska I, et al. Aneurysmal bone cyst of the orbit. Pediatr Neurosurg. 2006;42:325–7.
O’Gorman AM, Kirkham TH. Aneurysmal bone cyst of the orbit with unusual roentgenographic features. Am J Roentgenol. 1976;126:896–9.
Patel BC, Sabir DI, Flaharty PM, Anderson RL. Aneurysmal bone cyst of the orbit and ethmoid sinus. Arch Ophthalmol. 1993;111:586–7.
Powell JO, Glaser JS. Aneurysmal bone cyst of the orbit. Arch Ophthalmol. 1975;93:340–2.
Ronner HJ, Jones IS. Aneurysmal bone cyst of the orbit: a review. Ann Ophthalmol. 1983;15:626–9.
Senol U, Karaali K, Akyuz M, et al. Aneurysmal bone cyst of the orbit. Am J Neuroradiol. 2002;23:319–21.
Yuen VH, Jordan DR, Jabi M, Agbi C. Aneurysmal bone cyst associated with fibrous dysplasia. Ophthal Plast Reconstr Surg. 2002;18:471–4.
Tumors of Bone: Cholesterol Granuloma
Aferzon M, Millman B, O’Donnell TR. Cholesterol granuloma of the frontal bone. Otolaryngol Head Neck Surg. 2002;127:578–81.
Arat YO, Chaudhry IA, Boniuk M. Orbitofrontal cholesterol granuloma: distinct diagnostic features and management. Ophthal Plast Reconstr Surg. 2003;19:382–7.
Chow LP, McNab AA. Orbitofrontal cholesterol granuloma. J Clin Neurosci. 2005;12:206–9.
Daus W, Voges J, Schwechheimer K, et al. Cholesterol granuloma of the orbit. Klin Monatsbl Augenheilkd. 1988;193:195–9.
Dickey JB, Mullenix CD, O’Grady RB. Atypical magnetic resonance findings in an orbitofrontal cholesterol granuloma. Ophthal Plast Reconstr Surg. 1992;8:215–20.
Dobben GD, Philip B, Mafee MF, et al. Orbital subperiosteal hematoma, cholesterol granuloma, and infection. Radiol Clin N Am. 1998;36:1185–200.
Eijpe AA, Koornneef L, Verbeeten B Jr, et al. Cholesterol granuloma of the frontal bone: CT diagnosis. J Comput Assist Tomogr. 1990;14:914–7.
Elmaleh C, D’Hermies F, Barraco P, Pouliquen Y. Cholesteatoma of the orbit: a rare etiology of orbital tumor. J Fr Ophtalmol. 1989;12:139–42.
Fukata K, Jackson IT. Epidermal cyst and cholesterol granuloma of the orbit. Br J Surg. 1990;43:521–7.
Hill CA, Moseley IF. Imaging of orbitofrontal cholesterol granuloma. Clin Radiol. 1992;46:237–42.
Jordan DR, Spitellie P, Brownstein S. Orbital cholesterol granuloma and cholesteatoma: significance of differentiating the two. Ophthal Plast Reconstr Surg. 2007;23:415–7.
Kersten RC, Kersten JL, Bloom BR, Kulwin DR. Chronic hematic cyst of the orbit. Role of magnetic resonance imaging in diagnosis. Ophthalmology. 1988;95:1549–53.
McNab AA, Wright GE. Orbitofrontal cholesterol granuloma. Ophthalmology. 1990;97:28–32.
Ong LY, McNab AA. Recurrent orbital cholesterol granuloma. Orbit. 2008;27:119–21.
Parke DW 2nd, Font RL, Boniuk M, McCrary JA 3rd. Cholesterol granuloma of the orbit. Arch Ophthalmol. 1992;100:612–6.
Prabhakaran VC, Hsuan J, Selva D. Endoscopic-assisted removal of orbital roof lesions via a skin crease approach. Skull Base. 2007;17:341–5.
Selva D, Chen C. Endoscopic approach to orbitofrontal cholesterol granuloma. Orbit. 2004;23:49–52.
Selva D, Phipps SE, O’Connell JX. Pathogenesis of orbital cholesterol granuloma. Clin Exp Ophthalmol. 2003;31:78–82.
Wiot JG, Pleatman CW. Chronic hematic cysts of the orbit. Am J Neuroradiol. 1989;10:37–9.
Tumors of Bone: Ewing’s Sarcoma
Bajaj MS, Pushker N, Sen S, et al. Primary Ewing’s sarcoma of the orbit: a rare presentation. J Pediatr Ophthalmol Strabismus. 2003;40:101–4.
Dutton JJ, Rose JG Jr, DeBacker CM, Gayre G. Orbital Ewing’s sarcoma of the orbit. Ophthal Plast Reconstr Surg. 2000;16:292–300.
Eggli KD, Quiogue TM, Moser RP. Ewing’s sarcoma. Radiol Clin N Am. 1993;31:325–37.
Frandsen E. Ewing’s sarcom I orbiti. Nord Med. 1952;48:1673.
Green DM, Marinello MJ, Fisher J, et al. Ewing’s sarcoma of the scapula with metastases to the lung and eye. Am J Pediatr Hematol Oncol. 1986;8:134–43.
Guzowski M, Tumuluri K, Walker DM, Maloof A. Primary orbital Ewing sarcoma in a middle-aged man. Ophthal Plast Reconstr Surg. 2005;21:449–51.
Harbert F, Tabor GL Jr. Ewing’s tumor of the orbit. Am J Ophthalmol. 1950;33:1219–55.
Henk CB, Grampp S, Wiesbauer P, et al. Ewing sarcoma. Diagnostic imaging. Radiologe. 1998;38:509–22.
Jereb B, Ong RL, Mohan M, Caparros B, Exelby P. Redefined role of radiation in combined treatment of Ewing’s sarcoma. Pediatr Hematol Oncol. 1986;3:11–118.
Kissane JM, Askin FB, Foulkes M, Stratton LB, Shirley SF. Ewing’s sarcoma of bone: clinicopathologic aspects of 303 cases from the intergroup Ewing’s sarcoma study. Hum Pathol. 1983;14:773–9.
Li T, Goldberg RA, Becker B, McCann J. Primary orbital extraskeletal Ewing sarcoma. Arch Ophthalmol. 2003;121:1049–51.
Mansfield JB. Primary Ewing’s sarcoma of the skull. Surg Neurol. 1982;18:286–8.
Pang NK, Bartley GB, Giannini C. Primary Ewing sarcoma of the orbit in an adult. Ophthal Plast Reconstr Surg. 2007;23:153–4.
Rootman J. Diseases of the orbit: a multidisciplinary approach. 2nd ed. Philadelphia: Lippincott Williams & Wilkins; 2003. p. 299–301.
Sharma A, Garg A, Mishra NK, Gaikwad SB, et al. Primary Ewing’s sarcoma of the sphenoid bone with unusual imaging features: a case report. Neurol Neurosurg. 2005;107:528–31.
Wilson DJ, Dailey RA, Griffeth MT, Newton CJ. Primary Ewing sarcoma of the orbit. Ophthal Plast Reconstr Surg. 2001;17:300–3.
Woodruff G, Thorner P, Skarf B. Primary Ewing’s sarcoma of the orbit presenting with visual loss. Br J Ophthalmol. 1988;72:786–92.
Tumors of Bone: Fibrous Dysplasia
Bibby K, McFadzean R. Fibrous dysplasia of the orbit. Br J Ophthalmol. 1994;78:266–70.
Casselman JW, De Jonge I, Neyt L, De Clercq C, D’Hont G. MRI in craniofacial fibrous dysplasia. Neuroradiology. 1993;35:234–7.
Chung EM, Murphey MD, Specht CS, et al. From the archives of the AFIP. Pediatric orbit tumors and tumorlike lesions: osseous lesions of the orbit. Radiographics. 2008;28:1193.
Cruz AA, Constanzi M, de Castro FA, dos Santos AC. Apical involvement with fibrous dysplasia: implications for vision. Ophthal Plast Reconstr Surg. 2007;23:450–4.
Daffner RH, Kirks DR, Gehweiler JA, Heaston DK. Computed tomography of fibrous dysplasia. Am J Roentgenol. 1982;139:943–8.
Donoso LA, Margargal LE, Eiferman RA. Fibrous dysplasia of the orbit with optic nerve decompression. Ann Ophthalmol. 1982;14:80–3.
Gass JDM. Orbital and ocular involvement in fibrous dysplasia. Case report. South Med J. 1965;58:324–9.
Giordano F, Serio P, Savasta S, et al. Craniofacial surgery in fibrous dysplasia. J Pediatr Endocrinol Metab. 2006;19:595–604.
Goisis M, Biglioli F, Guareschi M, et al. Fibrous dysplasia of the orbital region: current clinical perspectives in ophthalmology and cranio-maxillofacial surgery. Ophthal Plast Reconstr Surg. 2006;22:383–7.
Katz BJ, Nerad JA. Ophthalmic manifestations of fibrous dysplasia: a disease of children and adults. Ophthalmology. 1998;105:2207–15.
Liakos GM, Walker CB, Carruth JAS. Ocular complications in craniofacial fibrous dysplasia. Br J Ophthalmol. 1979;63:611–6.
McCluskey P, Wingate R, Benger R, McCarthy S. Monostotic fibrous dysplasia of the orbit: an unusual lacrimal fossa mass. Br J Ophthalmol. 1993;77:54–6.
Melen O, Weinberg PE, Kim KS, et al. Fibrous dysplasia of bone with active visual loss. Ann Ophthalmol. 1980;12:734–9.
Moore RT. Fibrous dysplasia of the orbit. Review. Surv Ophthalmol. 1969;13:321–34.
Moore AT, Buncic JR, Munro IR. Fibrous dysplasia of the orbit in childhood. Clinical features and management. Ophthalmology. 1985;92:12–20.
Papay FA, Morlaes L Jr, Flaharty P, Smith SJ, et al. Optic nerve decompression in cranial base fibrous dysplasia. J Craniofac Surg. 1995;6:5–10. Discussion 11–14.
Ronner HJ, Trokel SL, Hilal SK. Acute blindness in a patient with fibrous dysplasia. Orbit. 1982;1:231–4.
Seiff SR. Optic nerve decompression in fibrous dysplasia: indications, efficacy, and safety. Plast Reconstr Surg. 1997;100:1611–2.
Selva D, White VA, O’Connell JX, Rootman J. Primary bone tumors of the orbit. Surv Ophthalmol. 2004;49:328–42.
Weisman JS, Hepler RS, Vinters HV. Reversible visual loss caused by fibrous dysplasia. Am J Ophthalmol. 1990;110:244–9.
Yuen VH, Jordan DR, Jabi M, Agbi C. Aneurysmal bone cyst associated with fibrous dysplasia. Ophthal Plast Reconstr Surg. 2002;18:471–4.
Tumors of Bone: Giant Cell Reparative Granuloma
D’Ambrosio AL, Williams SC, Lignelli A, et al. Clinicopathological review: giant cell reparative granuloma of the orbit. Neurosurgery. 2005;57:773–8.
Font RL, Blanco G, Soparkar CN, et al. Giant cell reparative granuloma of the orbit associated with cherubism. Ophthalmology. 2003;110:1846–9.
Hirschl S, Katz A. Giant cell reparative granuloma outside the jawbone. Diagnostic criteria and review of the literature with the first case description in the temporal bone. Hum Pathol. 1974;5:171–81.
Hoopes PC, Anderson RL, Blodi FC. Giant cell (reparative) granuloma of the orbit. Ophthalmology. 1981;88:1361–6.
Hyver SW, Ellis DS, Stewart WB, Spencer WH, Bartlett PC. Sino-orbital giant cell reparative granuloma. Ophthal Plast Reconstr Surg. 1998;14:178–81.
Mercado GV, Shields CL, Gunduz K, et al. Giant cell reparative granuloma of the orbit. Am J Ophthalmol. 1999;127:485–7.
Pherwani AA, Brooker D, Lacey B. Giant cell reparative granuloma of the orbit. Ophthal Plast Reconstr Surg. 2005;21:463–5.
Sebag J, Chapman P, Truman J, Riemersma RR. Giant cell granuloma of the orbit with intracranial extension. Neurosurgery. 1985;16:75–8.
Spraul CW, Wojno TH, Grossniklaus HE, Lang GK. Reparative giant cell granuloma with orbital involvement. Klin Monatsbl Augenheilkd. 1997;21:133–4.
Tumors of Bone: Ossifying Fibroma
Baumann I, Zimmerman R, Dammann F, et al. Ossifying fibroma of the ethmoid involving the orbit and the skull base. Otolaryngol Head Neck Surg. 2005;133:158–9.
Chung EM, Murphey MD, Specht CS, et al. From the archives of the AFIP pediatric obit tumors and tumorlike lesions: osseous lesions of the orbit. Radiographics. 2008;28:1193–214.
Cruz AA, Alencar VM, Figueiredo AR, et al. Ossifying fibroma: a rare cause of orbital inflammation. Ophthal Plast Reconstr Surg. 2008;24:107–12.
Fakadej A, Boynton JR. Juvenile ossifying fibroma of the orbit. Ophthal Plast Reconstr Surg. 1996;12:174–7.
Hartstein ME, Grove AS Jr, Woog JJ, Shore JW, Joseph MP. The multidisciplinary management of psammomatoid ossifying fibroma of the orbit. Ophthalmology. 1998;105:591–5.
Jordan DR, Farmer J, DaSilva V. Psammomatoid ossifying fibroma of the orbit. Can J Ophthalmol. 1992;27:194–6.
Khalil MK, Leib ML. Cemento-ossifying fibroma of the orbit. Can J Ophthalmol. 1979;14:195–200.
Margo CE, Ragsdale BD, Perman KI, Zimmerman LE, Sweet DE. Psammomatoid (juvenile) ossifying fibroma of the orbit. Ophthalmology. 1985;92:150–9.
Margo CE, Weiss A, Habal MB. Psammomatoid ossifying fibroma. Arch Ophthalmol. 1986;104:1347.
Shields JA, Nelson LB, Brown JF, Dolinskas C. Clinical, computed tomographic, and histopathologic characteristics of juvenile ossifying fibroma with orbital involvement. Am J Ophthalmol. 1983;96:650–3.
Shields JA, Peyster RG, Handler SD, Augsburger JJ, Kapustiak J. Massive juvenile ossifying fibroma of maxillary sinus with orbital involvement. Br J Ophthalmol. 1985;69:392–5.
Tunc M, Char DH. Ossifying fibroma of the later orbital wall in an adult. Orbit. 1999;18:291–3.
Tumors of Bone: Osteoma
Alper M, Gurler T, Bilkay U, Songur E, Mutluer S. Intraorbital osteoma and surgical strategy. J Craniofac Surg. 1998;9:464–7.
Grove AS Jr. Osteomas of the orbit. Ophthalmic Surg. 1978;9:23–39.
Jack LS, Smith TL, Ng JD. Frontal sinus osteoma presenting with orbital emphysema. Ophthal Plast Reconstr Surg. 2009;25:155–7.
Lachanas VA, Koutsopoulos AV, Hajiioannou JK, et al. Osteoid osteoma of the ethmoid bone associated with dacryocystitis. Head Face Med. 2006;2:23.
Livaoglu M, Cakir E, Karacal N. Large orbital osteoma arising from orbital roof: excision through an upper blepharoplasty incision. Orbit. 2009;28:200–2.
Maiuri F, Iaconetta G, Giamundo A, Stella L, Lamaida E. Fronto-ethmoid and orbital osteomas with intracranial extension. Report of two cases. J Neurosurg Sci. 1996;40:65–70.
McNab AA. Orbital osteoma in Gardner’s syndrome. Aust N Z J Ophthalmol. 1998;26:169–70.
Miller NR, Gray J, Snip R. Giant mushroom-shaped osteoma of the orbit originating from the maxillary sinus. Am J Ophthalmol. 1977;83:587–91.
Milman MC, Bayindir T, Akarcay M, et al. Endoscopic removal technique of a huge ethmoido-orbital osteoma. J Craniofac Surg. 2009;20:1403–6.
Mortada A. Orbital osteoma within the domain of ophthalmic surgery. Can J Ophthalmol. 1969;68:258–65.
Rawe SE, VanGilder JC. Surgical removal of orbital osteoma; case report. J Neurosurg. 1976;44:233–6.
Saetti R, Silvestrini M, Narne S. Ethmoid osteoma with frontal and orbital extension: endoscopic removal and reconstruction. Acta Otolaryngol. 2005;125:1122–5.
Selva D, Chen C, Wormald PJ. Frontoethmoidal osteoma: a stereotactic-assisted sino-orbital approach. Ophthal Plast Reconstr Surg. 2003;19:237–8.
Selva D, Shite VA, O’Connell JX, Rootman J. Primary bone tumor of the orbit. Surv Ophthalmol. 2004;49:328–42.
Whitson WE, Orcutt JC, Walkinshaw MD. Orbital osteoma in Gardner’s syndrome. Am J Ophthalmol. 1986;101:236–41.
Wilkes SR, Trautmann JC, DeSantos LW, Campbell RJ. Osteoma: an unusual cause of amaurosis fugax. Mayo Clin Proc. 1979;54:258–60.
Tumors of Bone: Osteosarcoma
Anderson PM. Effectiveness of radiotherapy for osteosarcoma that responds to chemotherapy. Mayo Clin Proc. 2003;78:145–6.
Attili SV, Jain A, Saini KV, et al. Orbital metastasis: a rare presentation of osteosarcoma. Int Ophthalmol. 2008;28:433–6.
Chalvatzis NT, Kalantzis G, Manthou ME, et al. Parosteal osteosarcoma of the orbit. Ophthal Plast Reconstr Surg. 2008;24:229–31.
Dhir SP, Munjal VP, Jain IS, et al. Osteosarcoma of the orbit. J Pediatr Ophthalmol Strabismus. 1980;17:312–4.
Draper GJ, Sanders BM, Kingston JE. Second primary neoplasms in patients with retinoblastoma. Br J Cancer. 1986;53:661–71.
Epley KD, Lasky JB, Karesh JW. Osteosarcoma of the orbit associated with Paget disease. Ophthal Plast Reconstr Surg. 1998;14:62–6.
Goldberg S, Slamovits TL, Dorfman HD, et al. Sarcomatous transformation of the orbit in a patient with Paget’s disease. Ophthalmology. 2000;107:1464–7.
Ha PK, Eisele DW, Frassica FJ, et al. Osteosarcoma of the head and neck: a review of the Johns Hopkins experience. Laryngoscope. 1999;109:964–9.
Hayashi T, Kuroshima Y, Yoshida K, et al. Primary osteosarcoma of the sphenoid bone with extensive periosteal extension-case report. Neurol Med Chir. 2000;40:419–22.
Jacob R, Abraham E, Jyothirmayi R, Nair MK. Extraskeletal osteosarcoma of the orbit. Sarcoma. 1998;2:121–4.
Lin PY, Chen WM, Hsieh YL, et al. Orbital metastatic osteosarcoma. J Chin Med Assoc. 2005;68:286–9.
Malawer MM, Helman LJ, O’Sullivan B. Sarcomas of bone. In: DeVita Jr VT, Hellman S, Rosenberg SA, editors. Cancer principles and practice of oncology. 7th ed. New York: Lippincott Williams & Wilkins; 2006. p. 1638–87.
Misra A, Misra S, Chaturvedi A, et al. Osteosarcoma with metastasis to the orbit. Br J Ophthalmol. 2001;85:1387–8.
Mohadjer Y, Wilson MW, Fuller CE, Haik BG. Primary pelvic telangiectatic osteosarcoma metastatic to both orbits. Ophthal Plast Reconstr Surg. 2004;20:77–9.
Parmar DN, Luthert PJ, Cree IA, et al. Two unusual osteogenic orbital tumors: presumed parosteal osteosarcomas of the orbit. Ophthalmology. 2001;108:1452–6.
Trevisani MG, Fry GL, Hesse RJ, et al. A rare case of orbital osteogenic sarcoma. Arch Ophthalmol. 1996;114:494–5.
Wenig BM, Mafee MF, Ghosh L. Fibro-osseous, osseous, and cartilaginous lesions of the orbit and paraorbital region: correlative, clinicopathologic and radiographic features, including the diagnostic role of CT and MR imaging. Radiol Clin N Am. 1998;36:1241–59.
Lacrimal Gland Tumors: Adenocarcinoma
Gong H, Hayashida H, Kitaoka T, Amemiya T. Ultrastructural study of primary lacrimal adenocarcinoma. Eur J Ophthalmol. 2001;11:301–5.
Heaps RS, Miller NR, Albert DM, et al. Primary adenocarcinoma of the lacrimal gland. Ophthalmology. 1993;100:1856–60.
Ishida M, Hotta M, Kushima R, et al. Case of ductal adenocarcinoma ex pleomorphic adenoma of the lacrimal gland. Rinsho Byori. 2009;57:746–51.
Katz SE, Rootman J, Dolman PJ, et al. Primary ductal adenocarcinoma of the lacrimal gland. Ophthalmology. 1996;103:157–62.
Kurisu Y, Shibayama Y, Tsuji M, et al. A case of primary ductal adenocarcinoma of the lacrimal gland: histopathological and immunohistochemical study. Pathol Res Pract. 2005;201:49–53.
Kim MJ, Hanmantgad S, Holdny AI. Novel management and unique pattern of primary ductal adenocarcinoma of the lacrimal gland. Clin Exp Ophthalmol. 2008;36:194–6.
Krishnakumar S, Subramanian N, Mahesh L, et al. Primary ductal adenocarcinoma of the lacrimal gland in a patient with neurofibromatosis. Eye. 2003;17:843–5.
Lee YJ, Oh YH. Primary ductal adenocarcinoma of the lacrimal gland. Jpn J Ophthalmol. 2009;53:268–70.
Milman T, Shields JA, Husson M, et al. Primary ductal adenocarcinoma of the lacrimal gland. Ophthalmology. 2005;112:2048–51.
Nasu M, Haisa T, Kondo T, Matsubara O. Primary ductal adenocarcinoma of the lacrimal gland. Pathol Int. 1998;48:981–4.
Shields JA, Shields CL, Epstein JA, et al. Primary epithelial malignancies of the lacrimal gland: the 2003 Ramon L. Font lecture. Ophthalmic Plast Reconstr Surg. 2004;20:10–21.
Lacrimal Gland Tumors: Adenoid Cystic Carcinoma
Ashton N. Epithelial tumours of the lacrimal gland. Mod Probl Ophthalmol. 1975;14:306–23.
Bartley GB, Harris GJ. Adenoid cystic carcinoma of the lacrimal gland: is there a cure, yet? Ophthal Plast Reconstr Surg. 2002;18:315–8.
Font RL, Smith SL, Bryan RG. Malignant epithelial tumors of the lacrimal gland: a clinicopathologic study of 21 cases. Arch Ophthalmol. 1998;116:613–6.
Galliani CA, Faught PR, Ellis FD. Adenoid cystic carcinoma of the lacrimal gland in a six-year old girl. Pediatr Pathol. 1993;13:559–65.
Gamel JW, Font RL. Adenoid cystic carcinoma of the lacrimal gland: the clinical significance of a basaloid histologic pattern. Hum Pathol. 1982;13:219–25.
Garrity JA, Henderson JW. Orbital tumors. 4th ed. Philadelphia: Lippincott Williams & Wilkins; 2007. p. 23–32.
Henderson JW. Adenoid cystic carcinoma of the lacrimal gland, is there a cure? Trans Am Ophthalmol Soc. 1987;85:312–9.
Hendrix LE, Massaro BM, Daniels DL, Smith DF, Haughton VM. Surface coil MR evaluation of a lacrimal gland carcinoma. J Comput Assist Tomogr. 1988;12:866–8.
Jung WS, Ahn KJ, Park MR, Kim JY, Choi JJ, Kim BS, et al. The radiological spectrum of orbital pathologies that involve the lacrimal gland and the lacrimal fossa. Korean J Radiol. 2007;8:336–42.
Lee AG, Phillips PH, Newman NJ, et al. Neuro-ophthalmic manifestations of adenoid cystic carcinoma. J Neuroophthalmol. 1997;17:183–8.
Levartovsky S, Milstein A, Nissim F, Loven D, Shani A. An unusual presentation of adenoid cystic carcinoma of the lacrimal gland. Ophthal Plast Reconstr Surg. 1993;9:47–50.
Mafee MF, Haik BG. Lacrimal gland and fossa lesions: role of computed tomography. Radiol Clin N Am. 1987;25:767–80.
Marsh JL, Wise DM, Smith M, Schwartz H. Lacrimal gland adenoid cystic carcinoma: intracranial and extracranial en bloc resection. Plast Reconstr Surg. 1981;68:577–85.
Meldrum ML, Tse DT, Benedetto P. Neoadjuvant intracarotid chemotherapy for treatment of advanced adenoid cystic carcinoma of the lacrimal gland. Arch Ophthalmol. 1998;116:315–21.
Mizokami H, Inokuchi A, Sawatsu M, et al. Adenoid cystic carcinoma of the lacrimal gland with wide and severe myoepithelial differentiation. Auris Nasus Larynx. 2002;29:77–82.
Naugle T Jr, Tepper DJ, Haik BG. Adenoid cystic carcinoma of the lacrimal gland: a case report. Ophthal Plast Reconstr Surg. 1994;10:45–8.
Portis JM, Krohl GB, Steward WB. Calcifications in lesions of the fossa of the lacrimal gland. Ophthal Plast Reconstr Surg. 1985;1:137–44.
Shields CL, Shields JA. Lacrimal gland tumors. Int Ophthalmol Clin. 1993;33:181–8.
Shields JA, Shields CL, Eagle RC Jr, Adkins J, De Potter P. Adenoid cystic carcinoma developing in the nasal orbit. Am J Ophthalmol. 1997;123:398–9.
Shields JA, Shields CL, Eagle RC Jr, et al. Adenoid cystic carcinoma of the lacrimal gland simulating a dermoid cyst in a 9-year-old boy. Arch Ophthalmol. 1998;116:1673–6.
Shields JA, Shields CL, Epstein JA, et al. Primary epithelial malignancies of the lacrimal gland: the 2003 Ramon L. Font Lecture. Ophthalmic Plast Reconstr Surg. 2004;20(1):10–21.
Tellado MV, McLean IW, Specht CS, Varga J. Adenoid cystic carcinomas of the lacrimal gland in childhood and adolescence. Ophthalmology. 1997;104:1622–5.
Tse DT, Neff AG. Recent developments in the evaluation and treatment of lacrimal gland tumors. Ophthalmol Clin N Am. 2000;13:663–81.
Vaidhyanath R, Kirke R, Brown L, Sampath R. Lacrimal fossa lesions: pictorial review of CT and MRI features. Orbit. 2008;27(6):410–8.
Wright JE, Rose GE, Garner A. Primary malignant neoplasms of the lacrimal gland. Br J Ophthalmol. 1992;76:401–7.
Lacrimal Gland Tumors: Mucoepidermoid Carcinoma
Carrau RL, Stillman E, Canaan RE. Mucoepidermoid carcinoma of the conjunctiva. Ophthal Plast Reconstr Surg. 1994;10:163–8.
Dhermy P, Pouliquen Y, Haye C, Parent A. Mucoepidermoid carcinoma of the conjunctiva. Clinical, histologic and ultrastructural study. J Fr Ophtalmol. 1983;6:553–63.
Dithmar S, Wojno TH, Washington C, Grossniklaus HE. Mucoepidermoid carcinoma of an accessory lacrimal gland with orbital invasion. Ophthal Plast Reconstr Surg. 2000;16:162–6.
Gamel JW, Eiferman RA, Guibor P. Mucoepidermoid carcinoma of the conjunctiva. Arch Ophthalmol. 1984;102:730–1.
Gunduz K, Shields CL, Shields JA, Mercado G, Eagle RC Jr. Intraocular neoplastic cyst from a mucoepidermoid carcinoma of the conjunctiva. Arch Ophthalmol. 1998;116:1521–3.
Hwang IP, Jordan DR, Brownstein S, et al. Mucoepidermoid carcinoma of the conjunctiva: a series of three cases. Ophthalmology. 2000;107:801–5.
Lawton AW, Karesh JW. Mucoepidermoid carcinoma of the lacrimal gland fossa: confirmation by ultrastructural study. South Med J. 1989;82:643–6.
Levin LA, Popham J, To K, et al. Mucoepidermoid carcinoma of the lacrimal gland. Report of a case with oncocytic features arising in a patient with chronic dacryops. Ophthalmology. 1991;98:1551–5.
Margo CE, Weitzenkorn DE. Mucoepidermoid carcinoma of the conjunctiva: report of a case in a 36-year-old with paranasal sinus invasion. Ophthalmic Surg. 1986;17:151–4.
Panda A, Sharma N, Sen S, et al. Mucoepidermoid carcinoma of the conjunctiva managed by frozen section-guided excision and lamellar keratoplasty. Clin Exp Ophthalmol. 2003;31:275–7.
Pulitzer DR, Eckert ER. Mucoepidermoid carcinoma of the lacrimal gland. An oxyphilic variant. Arch Ophthalmol. 1987;105:1406–9.
Rao NA, Font RL. Mucoepidermoid carcinoma of the conjunctiva: a clinicopathologic study of five cases. Cancer. 1976;38:1699–709.
Robinson JW, Brownstein S, Jordan DR, Hodge WG. Conjunctival mucoepidermoid carcinoma in a patient with ocular cicatricial pemphigoid and a review of the literature. Surv Ophthalmol. 2006;51:513–9.
Sofinski SJ, Brown BZ, Rao N, Wan WL. Mucoepidermoid carcinoma of the lacrimal gland. Case report and review of the literature. Ophthal Plast Reconstr Surg. 1986;2:147–51.
Stefanyszyn MA, Hidayat AA, Pe’er JJ, Flanagan JC. Lacrimal sac tumors. Ophthal Plast Reconstr Surg. 1994;10:169–84.
Ullman S, Augsburger JJ, Brady LW. Fractionated epibulbar I-125 plaque radiotherapy for recurrent mucoepidermoid carcinoma of the bulbar conjunctiva. Am J Ophthalmol. 1995;119:102–3.
Wagoner MD, Chuo N, Gonder JR, et al. Mucoepidermoid carcinoma of the lacrimal gland. Ann Ophthalmol. 1982;14:383–5.
Lacrimal Gland Tumors: Pleomorphic Adenoma
Alyahya GA, Stenman G, Persson F, et al. Pleomorphic adenoma arising in an accessory lacrimal gland of Wolfring. Ophthalmology. 2006;113:879–82.
Auran J, Jakobiec FA, Krebs W. Benign mixed tumor of the palpebral lobe of the lacrimal gland. Clinical diagnosis and appropriate surgical management. Ophthalmology. 1988;95:90–9.
Balchunas WR, Quencer RM, Byrne SF. Lacrimal gland and fossa masses: evaluation by computed tomography and A-mode echography. Radiology. 1983;149:751–8.
Bernardini FP, Devoto MH, Croxatto JO. Epithelial tumors of the lacrimal gland: an update. Curr Opin Ophthalmol. 2008;19:409–13.
Currie ZI, Rose GE. Long term risk of recurrence after intact excision of pleomorphic adenomas of the lacrimal gland. Arch Ophthalmol. 2007;1125:1643–6.
D’Hermies F, Mourier L, Wastl JP, et al. Palpebral form of mixed tumor of the lacrimal gland. Apropos of a case. J Fr Ophtalmol. 1992;15:220–3.
Faktorovitch EG, Crawford JB, Char DH, Kong C. Benign mixed tumor (pleomorphic adenoma) of the lacrimal gland in a 6-year old boy. Am J Ophthalmol. 1996;122:446–7.
Font RL, Gamel JW. Epithelial tumors of the lacrimal gland: an analysis of 265 cases. In: Jakobiec FA, editor. Ocular and adnexal tumors. Birmingham: Aesculapius; 1978. p. 787.
Gunduz K, Shields CL, Gunalp I, Shields JA. Magnetic resonance imaging of unilateral lacrimal gland lesions. Graefes Arch Clin Exp Ophthalmol. 2003;241:907–13.
Jakobiec FA, Trokel SL, Abbott GF, et al. Combined clinical and computed tomographic diagnosis of primary lacrimal fossa lesions. Am J Ophthalmol. 1982;94:785–807.
Jakobiec FA, Font RL. Lacrimal gland tumors. In: Spencer WH, Font RL, Green WR, et al., editors. Ophthalmic pathology. An atlas and textbook. Philadelphia: WB Saunders; 1986. p. 2496–2525.
Lacrimal Gland Tumor Study Group. An epidemiological survey of lacrimal fossa lesions in Japan: number of patients and their sex ratio by pathological diagnosis. Jpn J Ophthalmol. 2005;49:343–8.
Lai T, Prabhakaran VC, Malhortra R, Selva D. Pleomorphic adenoma of the lacrimal gland: is there a role for biopsy. Eye. 2009;23:2–6.
Lemke AJ, Hosten N, Neumann K, Grote A, Felix R. Space-occupying lesions of the lacrimal gland in CT and MRI exemplified by 4 cases. Aktuelle Radiol. 1995;5:363–6.
Mercado GJ, Gunduz K, Shields CL, Shields JA, Eagle RC Jr. Pleomorphic adenoma of the lacrimal gland in a teenager. Arch Ophthalmol. 1998;116:962–3.
Mindlin A, Lamberts D, Barsky D. Mixed lacrimal gland tumor arising in ectopic lacrimal gland tissue. J Pediatr Ophthalmol. 1977;14:44–7.
Rose GE, Wright JE. Pleomorphic adenoma of the lacrimal gland. Br J Ophthalmol. 1992;76:395–400.
Shields CL, Shields JA. Review of lacrimal gland lesions. Trans Pa Acad Ophthalmol Otolaryngol. 1990;42:925–30.
Tong JT, Flanagan JC, Eagle RC Jr, Mazzoli RA. Benign mixed tumor arising from an accessory lacrimal gland of Wolfring. Ophthal Plast Reconstr Surg. 1995;11:136–8.
Verma K, Kapila K. Role of the aspiration cytology in diagnosis of pleomorphic adenomas. Cytopathology. 2002;13:121–7.
Weis E, Rootman J, Joly TJ, et al. Epithelial lacrimal gland tumors: pathologic classification and current understanding. Arch Ophthalmol. 2009;127:1016–28.
Metastatic Tumors: Breast Carcinoma
Bullock JD, Yanes B. Ophthalmic manifestations of metastatic breast cancer. Ophthalmology. 1980;87:961–73.
Burmeister BH, Benjamin CS, Childs WJ. The management of metastases to the eye and orbit from carcinoma of the breast. Aust N Z J Ophthalmol. 1990;18:187–90.
Char DH, Miller T, Kroll S. Orbital metastases: diagnosis and course. Br J Ophthalmol. 1997;81:386–90.
Crown J. Evolution in the treatment of advanced breast cancer. Semin Oncol. 1998;25:12–7.
Font RL, Ferry AP. Carcinoma metastatic to the eye and orbit III. A clinicopathologic study of 28 cases metastatic to the orbit. Cancer. 1976;38:1326–35.
Freedman MI, Folk JC. Metastatic tumors to the eye and orbit. Patient survival and clinical characteristics. Arch Ophthalmol. 1987;105:1215–9.
Garcia GH, Weinberg DA, Glasgow BJ, et al. Carcinoma of the male breast to both orbits. Ophthal Plast Reconstr Surg. 1998;14:130–3.
Hesselionk JR, Davis KR, Weber AL, et al. Radiological evaluation of orbital metastases, with emphasis on computed tomography. Radiology. 1980;137:363–6.
Kuo SC, Hsiao SC, Chiou CC, et al. Metastatic carcinoma of the breast: a case with the unusual presentation of unilateral periorbital edema. Jpn J Ophthalmol. 2008;52:305–7.
Manor RS. Enophthalmos caused by orbital metastatic breast carcinoma. Acta Ophthalmol. 1974;52:881–4.
Milman T, Pliner L, Lnager PD. Breast carcinoma metastatic to the orbit: an unusually late presentation. Ophthal Plast Reconstr Surg. 2008;24:480–2.
Peyster RG, Shapiro MD, Haik BG. Orbital metastasis: role of magnetic resonance imaging and computed tomography. Radiol Clin N Am. 1987;25:647–62.
Po SM, Custer PL, Smith ME. Bilateral lagophthalmos. An unusual presentation of metastatic breast carcinoma. Arch Ophthalmol. 1996;114:1139–41.
Ratanatharathorn V, Powers WE, Grimm J, et al. Eye metastasis from carcinoma of the breast: diagnosis, radiation treatment and results. Cancer Treat Rev. 1991;18:261–76.
Reeves D, Levine MR, Lash R. Nonpalpable breast carcinoma presenting as orbital infiltration: case presentation and literature review. Ophthal Plast Reconstr Surg. 2002;18:84–8.
Reifler DM, Davison P. Histochemical analysis of metastatic breast carcinoma to the orbit. Ophthalmology. 1986;93:254–9.
Shields CL, Shields JA. Metastatic tumors of the orbit. Int Ophthalmol Clin. 1993;33:189–202.
Shields CL, Shields JA, Peggs M. Tumors metastatic to the orbit. Ophthalmic Reconstr Plast Surg. 1988;4:73–80.
Shields CL, Stopyra GA, Marr BP, Moster ML, Shields JA. Enophthalmos as initial manifestation of occult, mammogram-negative carcinoma of the breast. Ophthalmic Surg Lasers Imaging. 2004;35:56–7.
Stephanyszyn MA, DeVita EG, Flanagan JC. Breast carcinoma metastatic to the orbit. Ophthal Plast Reconstr Surg. 1987;3:43–7.
Valenzuela AA, Archibald CW, Fleming B, et al. Orbital metastasis: clinical features, management and outcome. Orbit. 2009;28:153–9.
Watkins LM, Rubin PA. Metastatic tumors of the eye and orbit. Int Ophthalmol Clin. 1998;38:117–28.
Metastatic Tumors: Bronchogenic Carcinoma
Ahmad SM, Esmaeli B. Metastatic tumors of the orbit and ocular adnexa. Curr Opin Ophthalmol. 2007;18:405–13.
Buys R, Abramson DH, Kitchin FD, Gottielb F, Epstein M. Simultaneous ocular and orbital involvement from metastatic bronchogenic carcinoma. Ann Ophthalmol. 1982;14:1165–7, 1170–1.
Campling BE, El-Deiny WS. Clinical implication of p53 mutations. In: Driscoll B, editor. Lung cancer: methods in molecular medicine. 2nd ed. Totowa: Humana Press; 2003. p. 57–77.
Dunaway RL. Ptosis as the presenting sign of orbital involvement from metastatic bronchogenic carcinoma. Am J Optom Physiol Optic. 1985;62:908–12.
Ferry AP, Font RL. Carcinoma metastatic to the orbit. Mod Probl Ophthalmol. 1975;14:377–81.
Ferry AP, Naghdi MR. Bronchogenic carcinoma metastatic to the orbit. Arch Ophthalmol. 1967;77:214–6.
Jordan DR, Lee-Wing MW. Metastatic large-cell lung carcinoma to the orbit in a 25-year-old nonsmoker. Ophthalmic Surg Lasers. 2002;33:488–90.
Macedo JE, Machado M, Araujo A, et al. Orbital metastasis as a rare form of clinical presentation of nonsmall cell lung cancer. J Thorac Oncol. 2007;2:166–7.
Shields JA, Shields CL, Eagle RC Jr, Lin B. Diffuse ocular metastases as an initial sign of metastatic lung cancer. Ophthalmic Surg Lasers. 1998;29:598–601.
Spaide RF, Granger E, Hammer BD, Negron FJ, Paglen PG. Rapidly expanding exophthalmos: as unusual presentation of small cell lung cancer. Br J Ophthalmol. 1989;73:461–2.
Tibolt RE, Meyer DR, Wobig JL. Small-cell carcinoma metastatic to the lacrimal gland. Arch Ophthalmol. 1991;109:921–2.
Whyte AM. Bronchogenic carcinoma metastasizing to the orbit. A case report. J Maxillofac Surg. 1978;6:277–80.
Metastatic Tumors: Malignant Melanoma
Conill C, Morilla I, Malvehy J, et al. Secondary orbital metastases from cutaneous melanoma. Melanoma Res. 2004;14:437–8.
Coppeto JR, Jaffe R, Gillies CG. Primary orbital melanoma. Arch Ophthalmol. 1978;96:2255–8.
Di Bernardo C, Pacheco EM, Hughes JR, Iliff WJ, Byrne SF. Echographic evaluation and findings in metastatic melanoma to extraocular muscles. Ophthalmology. 1996;103:1794–7.
Drummond SR, Fenton S, Pantilidis EP, et al. A case of cutaneous melanoma metastatic to the right eye and left orbit. Eye. 2003;17:420–2.
Dutton JJ, Anderson RL, Schelper RL, et al. Orbital malignant melanoma and oculodermal melanocytosis. Report of two cases and review of the literature. Ophthalmology. 1984;91:497–505.
Folberg R, McLean IW, Zimmerman LE. Malignant melanoma of the conjunctiva. Hum Pathol. 1985;16:136–43.
Gonder JR, Shields JA, Albert DM, et al. Uveal malignant melanoma associated with ocular and oculodermal melanocytosis. Ophthalmology. 1982;89:953–60.
Gunduz K, Shields JA, Shields CL, Eagle RC Jr. Periorbital cellular blue nevus leading to orbitopalpebral and intracranial melanoma. Ophthalmology. 1998;105:2046–50.
Henderson JW, Farrow GM. Malignant melanoma primary in the orbit. Report of a case. Trans Am Acad Ophthalmol Otolaryngol. 1972;76:1487–90.
Jakobiec FA, Ellsworth RM, Tannenbaum M. Primary orbital melanoma. Am J Ophthalmol. 1974;78:24–39.
Mahoney NR, Engleman T, Morgenstern KE. Primary malignant melanoma of the orbit in an African-American man. Ophthal Plast Reconstr Surg. 2008;24:475–7.
Odashiro AN, Arthurs B, Pereira PR, et al. Primary orbital melanoma associated with a blue nevus. Ophthal Plast Reconstr Surg. 2005;21:247–8.
Orcutt JC, Char DH. Melanoma metastatic to the orbit. Ophthalmology. 1988;95:1033–7.
Paridaens AD, McCartney AC, Minassian DC, Hungerford JL. Orbital exenteration in 95 cases of primary conjunctival malignant melanoma. Br J Ophthalmol. 1994;78:520–8.
Rini FJ, Jakobiec FA, Hornblass A, Beckman BL, Anderson RL. The treatment of advanced choroidal melanoma with massive orbital extension. Am J Ophthalmol. 1987;104:634–40.
Rosenberg C, Finger PT. Cutaneous malignant melanoma metastatic to the eye, lids, and orbit. Surv Ophthalmol. 2008;53:187–202.
Scott IU, Murray TG, Hughes JR. Evaluation of imaging techniques for detection of extraocular extension of choroidal melanoma. Arch Ophthalmol. 1998;116:897–9.
Shields JA, Sheilds CL. Massive orbital extension of posterior uveal melanomas. Ophthal Plast Reconstr Surg. 1991;7:238–51.
Shields JA, Shields CL. Current management of posterior uveal melanoma. Mayo Clin Proc. 1993;68:1196–200.
Shields JA, Shields CL. Orbital malignant melanoma. The 2002 Sean B. Murphy Lecture. Ophthal Plast Reconstr Surg. 2003;19:62–9.
Shields JA, Perez N, Shields CL, et al. Orbital melanoma metastatic from contralateral choroid: management by complete surgical resection. Ophthalmic Surg Lasers. 2002;33:416–20.
Spencer WH. Optic nerve extension of intraocular neoplasms. Am J Ophthalmol. 1975;80:465–71.
Tellada M, Specht CS, McLean IW, Grossniklaus HE, Zimmerman LE. Primary orbital melanomas. Ophthalmology. 1996;103:929–32.
Zografos L, Ducrey N, Beati D, et al. Metastatic melanoma in the eye and orbit. Ophthalmology. 2003;110:2245–56.
Secondary Tumors: Basal Cell Adenocarcinoma
Barnes L, Eveson JW, Reichart P, Sidransky D. Pathology and genetics of tumours of the head and neck. In: World Health Organization classification of tumours, vol. 9. Lyon: IARC Press; 2005.
Buchholz TA, Laramore GE, Griffin BR, Koh W-J, Griffin TW. The role of fast neutron radiation therapy in the management of advanced salivary gland malignant neoplasms. Cancer. 1992;69:2779–88.
Buchner A, Merrell PW, Carpenter WM. Relative frequency of intra-oral minor salivary gland tumors: a study of 380 cases from northern California and comparison to reports from other parts of the world. J Oral Pathol Med. 2007;36:207–14.
Ellis GL, Auclair PL. Tumor of the salivary glands. In: AFIP Atlas of tumor pathology. Fourth series. Fasc 9. Washington: Armed Forces Institute of Pathology; 2008. p. 269–81.
Ellis GL, Wiscovitch JG. Basal cell adenocarcinomas of the major salivary glands. Oral Surg Oral Med Oral Pathol. 1990;69:461–9.
Font RL, Gamel JW. Epithelial tumors of the lacrimal gland. In: Jakobiec FA, editor. Ocular and adnexal tumors. Birmingham: Aesculapius; 1978. p. 787–805.
Forrest AW. Epithelial lacrimal gland tumors: pathology as a guide to prognosis. Trans Am Acad Ophthalmol Otolaryngol. 1954;58:848–65.
Garrity JA, Henderson JW. Primary epithelial neoplasms. In: Garrity JA, Henderson JW, Cameron JD, editors. Henderson’s orbital tumors. 4th ed. Philadelphia: Lippincott Williams and Wilkins; 2007. p. 279–96.
Hirai H, Harada H, Okada N, et al. A case of basal cell adenocarcinoma of the upper gingival. Oral Surg Oral Med Oral Pathol Oral Radiol Endod. 2009;107:542–6.
Jakobiec FA, Font RL. Orbit. In: Spencer WH, editor. Ophthalmic pathology. An atlas and textbook, vol. 3. 3rd ed. Philadelphia: WB Saunders; 1986. p. 2459–860.
Khalil M, Arthurs B. Basal cell adenocarcinoma of the lacrimal gland. Ophthalmology. 2000;107:164–8.
Muller S, Barner L. Basal cell adenocarcinoma of the salivary glands: report of seven cases and review of the literature. Cancer. 1996;78:2471–7.
Parashar P, Baron E, Papadimitriou JC, et al. Basal cell adenocarcinoma of the oral minor salivary glands: review of the literature and presentation of two cases. Oral Surg Oral Med Oral Pathol Oral Radiol Endod. 2007;103:77–84.
Raslan WF, Leonetti JP, Sawyer DR. Basal cell adenocarcinoma of the parotid gland: a case report with immunohistochemical, ultrastructural findings and review of the literature. Oral Maxillofac Surg. 1995;53:1456–62.
Sanders TE, Ackerman LV, Zimmerman LE. Epithelial tumors of the lacrimal gland. A comparison of the pathologic and clinical behavior with those of the salivary glands. Am J Surg. 1962;104:657–65.
Shields CL, Shields JA, Eagle RC, Rathmell JP. Clinicopathologic review of 142 cases of lacrimal gland lesions. Ophthalmologica. 1989;96:431–5.
Speight PM, Barrett AW. Salivary gland tumours. Oral Dis. 2002;8:229–40.
Tilakaratne WM, Jaysooriya PR, Tennakoon TMPB, Saku T. Epithelial salivary tumors in Sri Lanka: a retrospective study of 713 cases. Oral Maxillofac Pathol. 2009;108:90–8.
Ward BK, Seethala RR, Barnes EL, Lai SY. Basal cell adenocarcinoma of a hard palate minor salivary gland: case report and review of the literature. Head Neck Oncol. 2009;1(1):31. [Epub ahead of print].
Wright JE, Rose GE. Primary malignant neoplasms of the lacrimal gland. Br J Ophthalmol. 1992;76:401–7.
Secondary Tumors: Basal Cell Carcinoma
Aurora AL, Blodi FC. Lesions of the eyelids. A clinicopathologic study. Surv Ophthalmol. 1970;15:94–104.
Baker HE, Berry-Brincat A, Zaki I, Cheung D. Three different consecutive manifestations of BCC in the same patient: presenting first as ectropion, then entropion, and finally medial canthal dystopia with epicanthus inversus. Orbit. 2008;19:1154–8.
Doxanas MT, Green WR, Iliff CE. Factors in the successful management of basal cell carcinoma of the eyelids. Am J Ophthalmol. 1981;91:726–36.
Gunalp I, Gunduz K. Secondary orbital tumors. Ophthal Plast Reconstr Surg. 1997;13:31–5.
Hornblass A, Rosen JL. A combined facial, orbital, and intracranial resection of extensive basal cell carcinoma arising in the eyelid. Ophthalmic Surg. 1985;16:769–73.
Karcioglu ZA. al-Hussain H, Svedberg AH. Cystic basal cell carcinoma of the orbit and eyelids. Ophthal Plast Reconstr Surg. 1998;14:134–40.
Katirciuglu YA, Yildiz EH, Kocaoglu FA, et al. Basal cell carcinoma in the lacrimal sac. Orbit. 2007;26:303–7.
Kleydman Y, Manolidis S, Ratner D. Basal cell carcinoma with intracranial invasion. J Am Acad Dermatol. 2009;60:1045–9.
Leshin B, Yeatts P, Anscher M, Montano G, Dutton JJ. Management of periocular basal cell carcinoma: Moths’ micrographic surgery versus radiotherapy. Surv Ophthalmol. 1993;38:193–212.
Lindgren G, Lark O. Long-term follow-up of cryosurgery of basal cell carcinoma of the eyelids. J Am Acad Dermatol. 1997;36:742–6.
Margo CE, Waltz K. Basal cell carcinoma of the eyelids and periorbital skin. Surv Ophthalmol. 1993;38:169–92.
McDougall AL, Chaplin AJ, Jones RL. Infiltration of the supraorbital nerve by basal cell carcinoma. Am J Dermatol Pathol. 1983;5:381–4.
Ly O, Lane CM. Eyelid contracture may indicate recurrent basal cell carcinoma, even after Mohs’ micrographic surgery. Orbit. 2009;28:29–33.
Payne J, Duke J, Butner R, et al. Basal cell carcinoma of the eyelids. A long-term follow-up study. Arch Ophthalmol. 1969;81:553–8.
Selva D, Hale L, Bouskill K, et al. Recurrent morphoeic basal cell carcinoma at the lateral canthus with orbitocranial invasion. Aust J Dermatol. 2003;44:126–8.
Shah HA, Lee HB, Nunery WR. Neglected basal cell carcinoma in a schizophrenic patient. Ophthal Plast Reconstr Surg. 2008;24:495–7.
Sigurdsson H, Agnarsson BA. Basal cell carcinoma of the eyelid. Risk of recurrence according to adequacy of surgical margins. Acta Ophthalmol Scand. 1998;76:477–80.
Steinkogler FJ, Schoda CD. The necessity of long-term follow up after surgery for basal cell carcinomas of the eyelid. Ophthalmic Surg. 1993;24:755–8.
Stefanous S. Five-year cycle of basal cell carcinoma management re-audit. Orbit. 2009;28:264–9.
Weimar VM, Ceilley RI. Basal cell carcinoma of the medial canthus with invasion of supraorbital and supratrochlear nerves: report of a case treated by Mohs’ technique. J Dermatol Surg Oncol. 1979;5:279–82.
Secondary Tumors: Inverted Papilloma
Anderson KK, Lessner AM, Hood I, et al. Invasive transitional cell carcinoma of the lacrimal sac arising in an inverted papilloma. Arch Ophthalmol. 1994;112:306–7.
Bajaj MS, Pushker N. Inverted papilloma invading the orbit. Orbit. 2002;21:155–9.
Elner VM, Burnstine MA, Goodman ML, Dortzbach RK. Inverted papillomas that invade the orbit. Arch Ophthalmol. 1995;113:1178–83.
Golub JS, Parikh SL, Budnick SD, et al. Inverted papilloma of the nasolacrimal system invading the orbit. Ophthal Plast Reconstr Surg. 2007;23:151–3.
Gomez JA, Mendenhall WM, Tannehill SP, et al. Radiation therapy in inverted papillomas of the nasal cavity and paranasal sinuses. Am J Otolaryngol. 2000;21:174–8.
Karcioglu ZA, Wesley RE, Greenidge KC, McCord CD. Proptosis and pseudocyst formation from inverted papilloma. Ann Ophthalmol. 1982;14:443–8.
Klimek T, Atai E, Schubert M, Glanz H. Inverted papilloma of the nasal cavity and paranasal sinuses: clinical data, surgical strategy and recurrence rates. Acta Otolaryngol. 2000;120:267–72.
Krouse JH. Endoscopic treatment of inverted papilloma: safety and efficacy. Am J Otolaryngol. 2001;22:87–99.
Lawson W, Kaufman MR, Biller HF. Treatment outcomes in the management of inverted papilloma: an analysis of 160 cases. Laryngoscope. 2003;113:1548–56.
Macdonald MR, Le KT, Freeman J, et al. A majority of inverted sinonasal papillomas carries Epstein-Barr virus genomes. Cancer. 1995;75:2307–12.
Moss AL. Inverted papilloma of the nose: an unusual cause of a medial canthal mass. Br J Plast Surg. 1983;36:254–7.
Perez-Ordonez B. Hamartomas, papillomas, and adenocarcinomas of the sinonasal tract and nasopharynx. J Clin Pathol. 2009;62:1085–95.
Raemdonck TY, Van den Broecke CM, Claerhout I, Decock CE. Inverted papilloma arising primarily from the lacrimal sac. Orbit. 2009;28:181–4.
Secondary Tumors: Nasopharyngeal Carcinoma
Au JS, Law CK, Foo W, Lau WH. In-depth evaluation of the AJCC/UICC 1997 staging system of nasopharyngeal carcinoma: prognostic homogeneity and proposed refinements. Int J Radiat Oncol Biol Phys. 2003;56:413–26.
Bass IS, Haller JO, Berdon WE, et al. Nasopharyngeal carcinoma: clinical and radiographic findings in children. Radiology. 1985;156:651–4.
Bernardini FP, Croxatto JO, Orcioni GF, Bianchi S. Visual loss secondary to orbital apex invasion as the first manifestation of recurrent nasopharyngeal carcinoma. Ophthal Plast Reconstr Surg. 2009;25:248–50.
Hsu MM, Tsu SM. Nasopharyngeal carcinoma in Taiwan. Clinical manifestations and results of therapy. Cancer. 1983;52:362–8.
Hsu WM, Wang AG. Nasopharyngeal carcinoma with orbital invasion. Eye. 2004;18:833–8.
King AD, Ma BB, Yau YY, et al. The impact of 18 F-FDG PET/CT on assessment of nasopharyngeal carcinoma at diagnosis. Br J Radiol. 2008;81:291–8.
Lee KYC, Seah LL, Tow S, et al. Nasopharyngeal carcinoma with orbital involvement. Ophthal Plast Reconstr Surg. 2008;24:185–9.
Pathmanathan R, Prasad U, Chandrika G, et al. Undifferentiated, nonkeratinizing, and squamous cell carcinoma of the nasopharynx. Variants of Epstein-Barr virus-infected neoplasia. Am J Pathol. 1995;146:1355–67.
Sham JS, Choy D. Prognostic factors of nasopharyngeal carcinoma: a review of 759 patients. Br J Radiol. 1990;63:51–8.
Zhang H, Yan JH, Wu ZY, Li YP. Clinical analysis of orbital metastasis from nasopharyngeal carcinoma. Zhonghua Yan Ke Za Zhi. 2006;42:318–22.
Secondary Tumors: Squamous Cell Carcinoma
Carrillo JF, Guemes A, Ramirez-Ortega MC, Onate-Ocana LF. Prognostic factors in maxillary sinus and nasal cavity carcinoma. Eur J Surg Oncol. 2005;31:1206–12.
Cook BE Jr, Bartley GB. Treatment options and future prospects for the management of eyelid malignancies: an evidence based update. Ophthalmology. 2001;108:2088–100.
De Keizer RJ, Padberg GW, de Wolff-Rouendaal D. Superior orbital fissure syndrome caused by intraorbital spread of cutaneous squamous cell carcinoma and not detected on computed tomography and magnetic resonance imaging. Jpn J Ophthalmol. 1997;41:104–10.
Dulguerov P, Jacobsen MS, Allal AS, et al. Nasal and paranasal sinus carcinoma: are we making progress? A series of 220 patients and a systematic review. Cancer. 2001;92:3012–29.
Finger PT, Tran HV, Turbin RE, et al. High-frequency ultrasonographic evaluation of conjunctival intraepithelial neoplasia and squamous cell carcinoma. Arch Ophthalmol. 2003;121:168–72.
Gokmen SH, Ardic F. Malignant conjunctival tumors invading the orbit. Ophthalmologica. 2008;222:338–43.
Howard GR, Nerad JA, Carter KD, et al. Clinical characteristics associated with orbital invasion of cutaneous basal cell and squamous cell tumors of the eyelid. Am J Ophthalmol. 1992;113:123–33.
Johnson TE, Tabbara KF, Weatherhead RG, et al. Secondary squamous cell carcinoma of the orbit. Arch Ophthalmol. 1997;115:75–8.
Johnson LN, Krohel GB, Yeon EB, Parnes SM. Sinus tumors invading the orbit. Ophthalmology. 1984;91(3):209–17.
Limawararut V, Hoyama E, Selva D, Davis G. Squamous cell carcinoma presenting as an orbital cyst with radiologic evidence of perineural invasion. Eur J Ophthalmol. 2007;17:970–2.
Limawararut V, Leibovitch I, Sullivan T, Selva D. Periocular squamous cell carcinoma. Clin Exp Ophthalmol. 2007;35:174–85.
Malhatra R, Huilgol SC, Huynh NT, et al. The Australian Mohs database. Periocular squamous cell carcinoma. Ophthalmology. 2004;111:617–23.
McCord CD Jr, Cavanagh HD. Microscopic features and biologic behavior of eyelid tumors. Ophthalmic Surg. 1980;11:671–81.
McNab AA, Francis JC, Benger R, et al. Perineural spread of cutaneous squamous cell carcinoma via the orbit. Clinical features and outcome in 21 cases. Ophthalmology. 1997;104:1457–62.
Nemzek WR, Hecht S, Gandour-Edwards R, et al. Perineural spread of head and neck tumors: how accurate is MR imaging? Am J Neuroradiol. 1998;19:701–6.
Nguyen J, Ivan D, Esmaeli B. Conjunctival squamous cell carcinoma in the anophthalmic socket. Ophthal Plast Reconstr Surg. 2008;24:98–101.
Nieto EJ, Medel JR, Huguet RP. Undiagnosed squamous cell carcinoma of the forehead presenting as a Tolosa-Hunt syndrome. Orbit. 2009;28:290–2.
Soysal HG, Markoc F. Invasive squamous cell carcinoma of the eyelids and periorbital region. Br J Ophthalmol. 2007;91:325–9.
Veness MJ, Biankin S. Perineural spread leading to orbital invasion from skin cancer. Australas Radiol. 2000;44:296–302.
Author information
Authors and Affiliations
Editor information
Editors and Affiliations
Rights and permissions
Copyright information
© 2021 Springer Nature Switzerland AG
About this chapter
Cite this chapter
Dutton, J.J., Sines, D.T., Elner, V.M. (2021). Orbital Tumors. In: Servat, J.J., Black, E.H., Nesi, F.A., Gladstone, G.J., Calvano, C.J. (eds) Smith and Nesi’s Ophthalmic Plastic and Reconstructive Surgery. Springer, Cham. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-41720-8_56
Download citation
DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-41720-8_56
Published:
Publisher Name: Springer, Cham
Print ISBN: 978-3-030-41719-2
Online ISBN: 978-3-030-41720-8
eBook Packages: MedicineMedicine (R0)