Abstract
A stated goal of Australian schooling is that all students will become active and informed citizens (MCEETYA, Melbourne Declaration of Educational Goals for Young Australians (Barton, ACT: Ministerial Council on Education, Employment, Training and Youth Affairs, 2008), 9). Accordingly, national education policy and curriculum reforms are increasingly concerned with the attributes or qualities that may be required for an individual to be a successful citizen in the twenty-first century. Research in History education has espoused the potential of studying history to help young people to prepare for the kind of reasoning and informed decision making that will be required for participatory citizenship (For examples, see: Sam Wineburg, Why learn history (when it’s already on your phone) (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 2018); Keith Barton, “Agency, Choice and Historical Action: How History Teaching can help Students think about Democratic Decision Making,” Citizenship Teaching and Learning 7, no. 2 (2012): 131–142; Sam Wineburg, “Why Historical Thinking is not About History,” History News 71, no. 2 (2016): 13–16). Extending this idea, this chapter proposes a theoretical framework for historical literacies, situated within the broader concept of historical consciousness (Peter Lee, “History Education and Historical Literacy,” in Debates in History Education, ed. Ian Davies (Oxon: Routledge, 2011), 64–66), and incorporating aspects of Wertsch’s sociocultural approach to consider the variable contextuality of historical reasoning. In particular, this work draws on the notion of mediated action (James V. Wertsch, “Is it possible to teach Beliefs, as well as Knowledge about History?” in Knowing, Teaching and Learning History: National and International Perspectives, ed. Peter N. Stearns, Peter Seixas and Sam Wineburg (New York: New York University Press, 2000), 38–50; James V. Wertsch, “Texts of Memory and Texts of History,” L2 Journal 4, no. 1 (2012): 9–20; James V. Wertsch, “Specific Narratives and Schematic Narrative Templates,” in Theorizing Historical Consciousness, ed. Perter Seixas (Toronto: University of Toronto Press, 2004), 49–62), and the different ways an individual may approach historical evaluation depending on their perceived personal connection to a historical event. This chapter is situated in the Australian context where History education has been debated in the public sphere through bi-partisan, politically motivated concerns about the role of History education in the formation of national identity, specifically considering the significance of such an approach in confronting the challenge of collective memory and national identity narratives, such as the Anzac Legend, in the development of historical consciousness.
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Notes
- 1.
Robert Parkes and Debra Donnelly, “Changing Conceptions of Historical Thinking in History Education: An Australian case study,” Revista Tempo e Argumento 6, no. 11 (2014): 113–136.
- 2.
Libby Tudbull, “The Humanities and Social Sciences: Developing active and informed citizens in a changing world,” in The Australian Curriculum: Promises, Problems and Perspectives, eds. Alan Reid and Deborah Price (Deakin West, ACT: Australian Curriculum Studies Association, 2018), 86.
- 3.
Andreas Körber, “German History Didactics: From Historical Consciousness to Historical Competencies – and Beyond?” in Historicizing the Uses of the Past: Scandinavian Perspectives on History Culture, Historical Consciousness and Didactics of History Related to World War II, eds. Helle Bjerg, Claudia Lenz and Erik Thorstenson (Bielefield: Transcript, 2011), 146.
- 4.
Lee, “History Education and Historical Literacy,” 64–66.
- 5.
James V. Wertsch, Voices of the Mind: A Sociocultural Approach to Mediated Action (Cambridge, Massachusetts: Harvard University Press, 1991).
- 6.
Keith C. Barton and Linda S. Levstik, Teaching History for the Common Good (Mahwah, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates, 2004), 6–7.
- 7.
Barton, “Agency, Choice and Historical Action,” 131–142.
- 8.
Mary Kalantzis, et al., Literacies, 2nd ed. (Melbourne: Cambridge University Press, 2016), 54–55.
- 9.
Marshall Maposa and Johan Wasserman, “Conceptualising Historical Literacy – A Review of the Literature,” Yesterday and Today, no. 4 (2009): 41–66; Taylor and Young, Making History, 30–32.
- 10.
Peter Freebody and Allan Luke, “Literacy as Engaging with New Forms of Life: The ‘Four Roles’ Model,” in The Literacy Lexicon, eds. Geoff Bull and Michèle Anstey (Frenchs Forest: Pearson Education Australia, 2003), 51–66.
- 11.
Arja Virta, “Historical Literacy: Thinking, Reading and Understanding History,” Journal of Research in Teacher Education 14, no. 4 (2007): 12.
- 12.
James Paul Gee, “Literacy and Social Minds,” in The Literacy Lexicon, 2nd ed., eds. G. Bull and M. Anstey (Frenchs Forest: Pearson Education Australia, 2003), 3–14; Carmen Luke, “Cyber-Schooling and Technological Change: Multiliteracies for New Times,” in Multiliteracies: Literacy Learning and the Design of Social Futures, eds. Bill Cope and Mary Kalantzis (South Yarra, VIC: Macmillan Publishers, 2000), 69–91.
- 13.
Tyson Retz, “Teaching Empathy and the critical examination of historical evidence,” in Historical Thinking for History Teachers: A New Approach to Engaging Students and Developing Historical Consciousness, eds. Tim Allender, Anna Clark and Robert J. Parkes (Crows Nest, NSW: Allen & Unwin, 2019), 91–92.
- 14.
Retz, “Teaching Empathy,” 92.
- 15.
Retz, 91–92.
- 16.
Stéphane Lévesque, Thinking Historically: Educating students for the Twenty-First Century (Toronto: University of Toronto Press, 2008), 171–2.
- 17.
Gee J. Paul, “Literacy and Social Minds.” In The Literacy Lexicon, edited by Geoff Bull and Michèle Anstey. (Frenchs Forest: Pearson Education Australia, 2003), 3–14.
- 18.
Roy Rosenzweig, “Scarcity or Abundance? Preserving the Past,” in Clio Wired: The future of the past in the digital age, eds. Roy Rosenzweig and Anthony Grafton (New York: Columbia University Press, 2011), 3–27; Wineburg, et al., “Evaluating Information: The Cornerstone of Civic Online Reasoning,” (Stanford Digital Repository, 2016), http://purl.stanford.edu/fv751yt5934
- 19.
Moyle, 2014, 37.
- 20.
John Potter and Julian McDougall, Digital Media, Culture & Education: Theorizing Third Space Literacies (London: Palgrave Macmillan), 16.
- 21.
Potter and McDougall, Digital Media, Culture & Education, 16.
- 22.
Stéphane Lévesque, “Breaking away from Passive History in the Digital Age,” Public History Weekly 3, no. 30 (2015): paragraph 3.
- 23.
Keith Barton and Linda Levstik, Teaching History for the Common Good (Mahwah, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates, 2004), 6–7.
- 24.
See, for example: Sam Wineburg, Why Learn History (When it’s Already on your Phone) (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 2018); Barton, “Agency, Choice and Historical Action,” 131–142; Sam Wineburg, “Why Historical Thinking Is not About History,” History News 71, no. 2 (2016): 13–16.
- 25.
Lee, “History Education and Historical Literacy,” 65.
- 26.
Lee, 64–66.
- 27.
For publications of this research, please see: Melanie Innes and Heather Sharp, “World War I Commemoration and Student Historical Consciousness: A Study of High-School Students’ Views,” History Education Research Journal 15, no. 2 (2018): 193–205; Heather Sharp and Melanie Innes, “Australian High School Students on Commemorating the Gallipoli Campaign: ‘It Baffles Me’ and ‘It’s a Bit Weird,’” Journal of International Social Studies 9, no. 1 (2019): 29–52; Heather Sharp, “After the ideological battles: Student views on sources representing the Gallipoli conflict,” International Perspectives on Teaching Rival Histories Pedagogical Responses to Contested Narratives and the History Wars, eds. Henrik Åström Elmersjö, Anna Clark and Monika Vinterek (London: Palgrave Macmillan, 2017), 229–250.
- 28.
The Gallipoli campaign of 1915 was the first major military action fought by Australian and New Zealand army forces in World War I. Allied troops landed on the Gallipoli peninsula in Turkey on April 25, 1915. Ultimately, after a defeat, the Allies were evacuated eight months later in December 1915.
- 29.
Jennifer Lawless and Sedat Bulgu, “Turkey, Australia and Gallipoli: The challenges of a shared history,” in Teaching history and the changing nation-state: Transnational and intranational perspectives, ed. R. Guyver (London: Bloomsbury Academic, 2016), 223, ed. R. Guyver (London: Bloomsbury Academic, 2016), 223.
- 30.
Anna Clark, Private Lives, Public History (Carlton, Victoria: Melbourne University Press, 2016), 34–37.
- 31.
Philip Roberts, “From Historical Literacy to a Pedagogy of History” (presentation, Building Bridges for Historical Learning: Connecting Teacher Education and Museum Education, University of Canberra Convention Centre, ACT, 2011), 3.
- 32.
Tony Taylor and Carmel Young, Making History: A guide for the teaching and learning of history in Australian schools (Carlton South, Victoria: Curriculum Corporation, 2003), 35.
- 33.
MCEETYA, Melbourne Declaration, 9.
- 34.
Lyn Yates, et al., Knowledge at the crossroads? Physics and History in the Changing World of Schools and Universities (Singapore: Springer, 2017), 16.
- 35.
Lyn Yates, “Schools, Universities and History in a world of twenty-first century skills: ‘The end of knowledge as we know it?’” History of Education Review 46, no. 1 (2017): 7.
- 36.
Alan Reid, “The influence of Curriculum Pasts on Curriculum Futures,” in Australia’s Curriculum Dilemmas, eds. Lyn Yates, Cherry Collins and Kate O’Connor (Carlton, VIC: Melbourne University Press, 2012), 45–65.
- 37.
Bob Lingard, “The Australian Curriculum: A critical interrogation of why, what and where to?” Curriculum Perspectives 38, no. 1 (2018): 55–65.
- 38.
Henry A. Giroux, “The Politics of National Identity and the Pedagogy of Multiculturalism in the USA,” in Multicultural States: Rethinking Difference and Identity, ed. D. Bennett (London: Routledge, 1998), 179.
- 39.
Christian Laville, “Historical consciousness and history education: What to expect from the first for the second,” in Theorizing Historical Consciousness, ed. Peter Seixas (Toronto: University of Toronto Press, 2004), 166–7; Phillipa Parsons, “School History as a Space to Foster Ideas of Critical, Post-National Citizenship,” The Social Educator 36, no. 1 (2018): 30.
- 40.
Michael Billig, Banal Nationalism (London: Sage Publications, 1995), 8.
- 41.
Henry A. Giroux, America at War with Itself (San Francisco: City Lights Publishers, 2017), 232.
- 42.
Keith C. Barton, “History, Humanistic Education, and Participatory Democracy,” in To the Past: History Education, Public Memory and Citizenship Education in Canada, eds. Ruth Sandwell (Toronto: University of Toronto Press, 2006), 56.
- 43.
Australian Curriculum, Assessment and Reporting Authority (ACARA), “Structure | The Australian Curriculum,” Accessed March 4, 2019, https://www.australiancurriculum.edu.au/f-10-curriculum/structure/
- 44.
Tudbull, “The Humanities and Social Sciences,” 89.
- 45.
Cherry Collins and Lyn Yates, “Confronting Equity, Retention and Student diversity,” in Australia’s Curriculum Dilemmas: State cultures and the big issues, eds. Lyn Yates, Cherry Collins and Kate O’Connor (Carlton, Vic: Melbourne University Press, 2012), 107–126.
- 46.
Tudbull, “The Humanities and Social Sciences,” 89.
- 47.
Henrik Åström Elmersjö, “History beyond borders: Peace education, history textbook revision, and the internationalization of history teaching in the twentieth century,” Historical Encounters: A journal of Historical Consciousness, Historical Cultures, and History Education 1, no. 1 (2014): 62–74.
- 48.
Peter Glassberg, “Public History and the study of Memory,” The Public Historian 18, no. 2 (1996): 7–23.
- 49.
Carolyn Holbrook, “Are We Brainwashing Our Children? The Place of Anzac in Australian History,” Agora 51, no. 4 (2016): 22.
- 50.
Heather Sharp, “Representing Australia’s Involvement in the First World War: Discrepancies between public discourses and school History textbooks from 1916–1936,” Journal of Educational Media, Memory, and Society 6, no. 1 (2014): 1–23.
- 51.
Joy Damousi, “Why do we get so emotional about Anzac?” in What’s Wrong with Anzac? The Militarisation of Australian History, eds. Marilyn Lake and Henry Reynolds (Sydney: University of New South Wales Press, 2010), 100–101.
- 52.
Marilyn Lake, “How Do Schoolchildren Learn About the Spirit of Anzac?” in What’s Wrong with Anzac? The Militarisation of Australian History, eds. Marilyn Lake and Henry Reynolds (Sydney: University of New South Wales Press, 2010), 139–141.
- 53.
Lake, “How Do Schoolchildren Learn About the Spirit of Anzac?” 139.
- 54.
Holbrook, “Are We Brainwashing Our Children?,” 22.
- 55.
Sharp and Innes, “Australian high school students on commemorating the Gallipoli campaign,” 34.
- 56.
Erika Apfelbaum, “Halbwachs and the Social Properties of Memory,” in Memory: Histories, Theories, Debates, eds. Susannah Radstone and Bill Schwarz (New York: Fordham University, 2010), 86.
- 57.
Heather Sharp, “Historical Representation of Gallipoli in the Australian Curriculum,” Agora 49, no. 2 (2014): 17.
- 58.
James W. Booth, “The Work of Memory: Time, Identity and Justice,” Social Research 75, no. 1: (Spring 2008): 247–8.
- 59.
Damousi, “Why do we get so emotional about Anzac?,” 100–2.
- 60.
Research participant, as cited in: Innes and Sharp, “World War I commemoration and student historical consciousness,” 198–9.
- 61.
Innes and Sharp, “World War I commemoration and student historical consciousness,” 198.
- 62.
Sharp and Innes, “Australian high school students on commemorating the Gallipoli Campaign,” 41.
- 63.
ACARA, The Shape of the Australian Curriculum, Civics and Citizenship, March 4, 2019, http://docs.acara.edu.au/resources/Shape_of_the_Australian_Curriculum__Civics_and_Citizenship_251012.pdf
- 64.
Keith C. Barton, “Agency, Choice and Historical Action: How History Teaching Can Help Students Think About Democratic Decision Making.” Citizenship Teaching and Learning 7, no. 2 (2012): 131–42.
- 65.
Sam Wineburg, Historical Thinking and Other Unnatural Acts: Charting the Future of Teaching the Past (Philadelphia: Temple University Press, 2001).
- 66.
Tyson Retz, “At the Interface: Academic History, School History and the Philosophy of History,” Journal of Curriculum Studies 48, no. 4 (2016): 513–4.
- 67.
Retz, “At the Interface,” 513–4; Deborah Henderson, “The Nature of Values and Why They Matter in the Teaching and Learning of History,” in Historical Thinking for History Teachers: A New Approach to Engaging Students and Developing Historical Consciousness, eds. Tim Allender, Anna Clark and Robert J Parkes (Crows Nest, NSW: Allen & Unwin, 2019), 111–3.
- 68.
Retz, “At the Interface,” 513–4.
- 69.
Jörn Rüsen, “Historical consciousness: Narrative structure, moral function, and ontogenetic development,” in Theorizing historical consciousness, ed. Peter Seixas (Toronto: University of Toronto Press, 2004), 70.
- 70.
Ammert et al., “Bridging Historical and Moral Consciousness,” 3.
- 71.
Lee, “History Education and Historical Literacy,” 69.
- 72.
Anna Clark and Carla Peck, “Introduction: Historical consciousness: Theory and practice,” in Contemplating historical consciousness: Notes from the Field, eds. A. Clark and C. Peck (New York: Berghahn Books, 2019), 2.
- 73.
Jörn Rüsen, “The Development of Narrative Competence in Historical Learning—an Ontogenetic Hypothesis Concerning Moral Consciousness,” History and Memory 1, no. 2 (1989): 35–59.
- 74.
As cited in, Rüsen, “Historical Consciousness,” 63–85.
- 75.
Rüsen, “Historical Consciousness,” 66.
- 76.
Ammert et al., “Bridging Historical and Moral Consciousness,” 3.
- 77.
Niklas Ammert, “Patterns of Reasoning: A Tentative Model to Analyse Historical and Moral Consciousness among 9th Grade Students,” Historical Encounters: A Journal of Historical Consciousness, Historical Cultures, and History Education 4, no. 1 (2017): 26.
- 78.
Rüsen, “Historical consciousness,” 69.
- 79.
Rüsen, “Historical consciousness,” 64, 69–70.
- 80.
Rüsen, “Historical consciousness,” 63–85; Rüsen, “The Development of Narrative Competence in Historical Learning,” 35–59.
- 81.
Henderson, “The Nature of Values and Why They Matter,” 106–7.
- 82.
Peter Seixas, “A History/Memory Matrix for History Education.” Public History Weekly 4, no. 6 (2015).
- 83.
Rüsen, “Historical Consciousness,” 53–85; Rüsen, “The Development of Narrative Competence,” 35–59; Peter Lee, “ ‘Walking Backwards into Tomorrow’ Historical Consciousness and Understanding History,” International Journal of Historical Learning, Teaching and Research 4, no. 1 (2004); Arthur Chapman, “ ‘But It Might Just Be Their Political Views’: Using Jörn Rüsen’s ‘Disciplinary Matrix’ to Develop Understanding of Historical Representation,” Caderno de Pesquisa: Pensamento Educacional 9, no. 21 (2014): 67–85.
- 84.
Melanie Innes and Heather Sharp, “World War I Commemoration and Student Historical Consciousness: A Study of High-School Students’ Views,” History Education Research Journal 15, no. 2 (2018): 193–205.
- 85.
Körber, “German History Didactics,” 162.
- 86.
Körber, “German History Didactics,” 149–151; Andreas Körber and Johannes Meyer-Hamme, “Historical Thinking, Competencies, and their Measurement,” in New Directions in Assessing Historical Thinking, eds. Kadriye Ercikan and Peter Seixas (New York: Routledge, 2015) 93.
- 87.
Körber and Meyer-Hamme, “Historical Thinking, Competencies, and their Measurement,” 93.
- 88.
Körber, “German History Didactics,” 158–9.
- 89.
Körber and Meyer-Hamme, “Historical Thinking, Competencies, and their Measurement,” 94.
- 90.
Barton, “Agency, Choice and Historical Action,” 131–142.
- 91.
Barton, “History, Humanistic Education, and Participatory Democracy,” 57.
- 92.
Sam Wineburg, “Why Historical Thinking Is Not About History,” History News 71, no. 2 (2016): 13–16.
- 93.
Wineburg, “Why Historical Thinking Is Not About History,” 13–16.
- 94.
Barton and Levstik, Teaching History for the Common Good, 18.
- 95.
Wertsch, “Is it Possible to Teach Beliefs,” 45.
- 96.
Ibid., 40; Barton and Levstik, Teaching History for the Common Good, 6–18.
- 97.
Potter and McDougall, Digital Media, Culture & Education, 37–59.
- 98.
James V. Wertsch, “Texts of memory and texts of history,” L2 Journal 4, no. 1 (2012): 10–11.
- 99.
James V. Wertsch, “Specific Narratives and Schematic Narrative Templates,” in Theorizing Historical Consciousness, ed. P Seixas (Toronto: University of Toronto Press, 2004), 56.
- 100.
Wertsch, “Texts of memory,” 12.
- 101.
Anna Clark, Private Lives, Public History (Carlton, Victoria: Melbourne University Press, 2016); Joy Damousi, “Why Do We Get to Emotional About Anzac?” in What’s Wrong with Anzac? The Militarisation of Australian History, eds. Marilyn Lake and Henry Reynolds (Sydney: University of New South Wales Press, 2010), 94–109.
- 102.
Wertsch, “Texts of memory,” 12.
- 103.
Wertsch, 11.
- 104.
Marilyn Lake, “Introduction: What Have You Done for Your Country,” in What’s Wrong with Anzac? The Militarisation of Australian History, eds. Marilyn Lake and Henry Reynolds (Sydney: University of New South Wales Press, 2010), 1–23; Damousi, “Why Do We Get so Emotional about Anzac?” 94–109.
- 105.
Anna Clark, History’s Children: History Wars in the Classroom (Sydney: University of New South Wales Press Ltd., 2008), 62.
- 106.
Sharp, “After the Ideological Battles,” 246–247.
- 107.
Robert Parkes, “Historical Consciousness, Fake News and the Other,” Public History Weekly 5, no. 19 (2017): para 7.
- 108.
Lee, “History education and historical literacy,” 63–72.
- 109.
James Paul Gee, “New People in New Worlds: Networks, the New Capitalism and Schools,” in Multiliteracies: Literacy Learning and the Design of Social Futures, eds. Bill Cope and Mary Kalantzis (South Yarra: Macmillan Publishers, 2000), 43–68.
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Innes, M. (2020). Dynamic Literacies and Democracy: A Framework for Historical Literacy. In: Berg, C.W., Christou, T.M. (eds) The Palgrave Handbook of History and Social Studies Education. Palgrave Macmillan, Cham. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-37210-1_23
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