Abstract
Politically, islamist, or otherwise motivated extremism, radicalization, and violence are highly topical issues in many countries. Thousands of publications address theoretical concepts, potential origins, risk factors, developmental phases, and approaches to prevention. However, there is not yet much research with a focus on resilience and protective factors in this domain. This article contains a systematic review of quantitative studies that investigated protective effects against extremism and radicalization as well as qualitative research on factors that contribute to disengagement from radical groups. After screening more than 2,000 documents, we found 28 eligible reports containing 21 analyses that provided quantitative data and seven qualitative interview studies. Most studies addressed islamist (religious/ethnic) extremism, some others far-right, far-left, and mixed forms. Thirty different protective factors showed significant effects against radicalization. Replicated factors were self-control, adherence to law, acceptance of police legitimacy, illness, non-deviant significant others, positive parenting behavior, good school achievement, non-violent peers, contact to foreigners, and a basic attachment to society. The results of the qualitative research on disengagement were in accordance with some of these individual and social “pull factors” but also showed “push factors” like disillusionment and negative experiences in the radical group as well as critical reflections and identity changes. Many findings were similar to what we know from resilience against and desistance from violence in other fields. Therefore, issues of extremism, violent radicalization, and terrorism should become more integrated into criminology. Limitations of the systematic review and potential practical implications are discussed.
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References
∗ Quantitative studies included in this review
† Qualitative studies included in this review
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Appendix
Appendix
Detailed characteristics of quantitative studies on protective factors against political and religious extremism and radicalization
Author/publication date | Country | Sample N | Type of sample | Age range or M (SD) | Type of extremism | Outcome | Type of analyses | Protective factors | Type of factor |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Asal et al. (2008) | Pakistan | 141 | Families of martyrs in the jihad | 46.19 (14.62) | r/e | Attitude (permitting child to join jihadist movement) | Logistic regression | Ownership of residential property b = −2.13†(SE = 1.16) | Family |
Membership in specific religious groups b = −1.79†(SE = 1.00) | Family | ||||||||
Attitude (forbidding child to join jihadist movement) | Ownership of residential property b = 1.70∗ (SE = 0.78) | Family | |||||||
Baier et al. (2016) | Germany | 4697 | Students | 9th graders | rw | Attitude | Multilevel linear regression | Bonding to school β = −.07∗∗∗ | School |
Good school achievement β = −.06∗∗∗ | School | ||||||||
Adherence to law β = −.33∗∗∗ | Individual | ||||||||
4588 | rw | Behavior | Binary logistic multilevel regression | Good school achievement OR = 0.70∗ | School | ||||
3063 | lw | Attitude | Multilevel linear regression | Appreciating parenting style β = −.03† | Family | ||||
Bonding to school β = −.09∗∗∗ | School | ||||||||
Good school achievement β = −.04∗∗ | School | ||||||||
Adherence to law β = −.40∗∗∗ | Individual | ||||||||
3033 | lw | Behavior | Binary logistic multilevel regression | Adherence to law OR = 0.60∗∗ | Individual | ||||
354 | r/e | Attitude | Multilevel linear regression | Adherence to law β = −.47∗∗∗ | Individual | ||||
Bhui et al. (2014) | UK | 608 | Adolescents and adults | 18–45 | r/e | Attitude (condemnation of terrorism) | Multinomial logistic regression | More social contact/social networks RR = 1.52∗∗∗ | Peer group |
Illness RR = 8.81∗∗ | Individual | ||||||||
Depression RR = 1.22∗ | Individual | ||||||||
Low social capital RR = 0.63∗∗∗ | Community/society | ||||||||
Attitude (sympathy for terrorism) | Threatening life events RR = 0.47† | Individual | |||||||
Low importance of religion RR = 0.08∗∗ | Individual | ||||||||
Low importance of religion RR = 0.07∗ | Individual | ||||||||
Illness RR = 0.27† | Individual | ||||||||
Migrant of the first generation RR = 0.22∗∗ | Community/society | ||||||||
Boehnke et al. (1998) | Germany | 590 | Students | 12–25 | rw | Attitude | Path analysis | Good school achievement β = −.19∗∗ | School |
Cragin et al. (2015) | Palestine | 600 | Adolescents | 18–30 | n/s | Attitude (Opposed to suicide attacks) | MICE-corrected regression | Dissatisfaction with quality of life b = 1.36†(SE = 0.70) | Individual |
Anxiety about getting incarcerated b = 0.66∗∗ (SE = 0.20) | Individual | ||||||||
Incarceration of a family member b = 0.96∗∗ (SE = 0.23) | Family | ||||||||
Willingness (low willingness to engage in violent protest) | Political disinterest b = 0.94†(SE = 0.50) | Individual | |||||||
Family members not involved in violence b = 1.44∗ (SE = 0.22) | Family | ||||||||
Non-violent peers b = 1.44∗ (SE = 0.22) | Peer group | ||||||||
Feddes et al. (2015) | The Netherlands | 46 | Adolescents | 16.93 (2.76) | r/e | Attitude | Linear regression analysis | Empathy β = −.41∗ | Individual |
Fuchs (2003) | Germany | 4367 | Students | 14–21 | rw | Attitude | Path analysis | Contact to foreigners β = −.24∗∗∗ | Peer group |
Subjective deprivation of SES β = −.08∗∗ | Individual | ||||||||
Attitude and behavior | Contact to foreigners β = −.04∗∗ | Peer group | |||||||
Subjective deprivation of SES β = −.05∗∗∗ | Individual | ||||||||
Jasko et al. (2016) | USA | 1496 | Extremists | 34.24 (13.30) | Mixed | Behavior | Hierarchical logistic regression | Significant other not involved in violence b = −0.57†(SE = 0.33) | Family |
Significant other not involved in violence b = −0.57†(SE = 0.29) | Family | ||||||||
Non-violent peers b = −0.76∗∗ (SE = 0.24) | Peer group | ||||||||
Non-violent peers b =− 0.82∗∗∗ (SE = 0.17) | Peer group | ||||||||
Jensen et al. (2016) | USA | 1473 | Extremists | 34.18 (13.22) | mixed | Behavior | Multivariate logistic regression model | Employment b = −.56∗∗ (SE = .21) | Individual |
Liht and Savage (2013) | UK | 81 | Adolescents | 19.48 (2.14) | r/e | Behavior | Pre/post comparison | Value complexity 25–50%∗ 8.3–22.7%∗ | Individual |
Muluk et al. (2013) | Indonesia | 934 | Adults | 39.90 (13.40) | r/e | Attitude and behavior | Path analysis | Intensive religious practice β = −0.15 | Individual |
Higher educational level β = −0.14 | School | ||||||||
Pauwels and De Waele (2014) | Belgium | 2879 | Adolescents | <18 – >22 | rw | Behavior (violence towards property) | Blockwise multiple logistic regression analysis | Acceptance of police legitimacy OR = 0.71∗∗ | Individual |
Perceived personal discrimination OR = 0.72∗ | Individual | ||||||||
Behavior (violence towards persons) | Acceptance of police legitimacy OR = 0.78∗ | Individual | |||||||
Pauwels and Svensson (2017) | Belgium | 4337 | Adolescents | 16–24 | rw | Behavior | Multivariate logistic regression | Self-control β = −.32∗∗ | Individual |
4326 | lw | Behavior | Multivariate logistic regression | Self-control β = −.38∗∗∗ | Individual | ||||
4330 | r/e | Behavior | Multivariate logistic regression | Self-control β = −.32∗∗∗ | Individual | ||||
van Bergen et al. (2015) | The Netherlands | 166 | Students | 15.70 (1.02) | r/e | Willingness | SEM | Basic attachment to society β = −.17∗ | Community/society |
232 | 15.86 (1.02) | r/e | Willingness | SEM | Basic attachment to society β = −.05∗ | ||||
van Bergen et al. (2016) | The Netherlands | 133 | Students | 15.58 (0.95) | r/e | Willingness | SEM | Appreciating parenting style β = −.11∗∗ | Family |
Attitude | SEM | Basic attachment to society β = −.17† | Community/society |
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Lösel, F., Bender, D., Jugl, I., King, S. (2020). Resilience against Political and Religious Extremism, Radicalization, and Related Violence: A Systematic Review of Studies on Protective Factors. In: Weisburd, D., Savona, E.U., Hasisi, B., Calderoni, F. (eds) Understanding Recruitment to Organized Crime and Terrorism. Springer, Cham. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-36639-1_3
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