Skip to main content
SpringerLink
Log in

Employment Practices with People with Autism Spectrum Disorder in the Digital Age

  • Chapter
  • First Online:
Theory, Research and Dynamics of Career Wellbeing

Abstract

Autism Spectrum Disorders (ASD) is a high-incidence condition affecting approximately one out of 68 of people. Adults with ASD are three to four times less likely to be employed than peers who do not have a disability. The high rate of unemployment of adults with ASD suggests a gap in employment development theory and practice knowledge addressing the specific needs of this population. This chapter provides new insights on theoretical framing of employment support interventions for people with ASD, including the interface between behavioral-gradient, structural-infrastructure, and psychosocial factors in vocational development with individuals with ASD. Practical implications of this chapter include taking into account level of functioning with ASD, structural-infrastructural supports, and the use of digital technologies in career counseling of people with neurodiversity.

This is a preview of subscription content, log in via an institution to check access.

Access this chapter

Log in via an institution
eBook
USD 16.99
Price excludes VAT (USA)
  • Available as EPUB and PDF
  • Read on any device
  • Instant download
  • Own it forever
Softcover Book
USD 109.99
Price excludes VAT (USA)
  • Compact, lightweight edition
  • Dispatched in 3 to 5 business days
  • Free shipping worldwide - see info
Hardcover Book
USD 109.99
Price excludes VAT (USA)
  • Durable hardcover edition
  • Dispatched in 3 to 5 business days
  • Free shipping worldwide - see info

Tax calculation will be finalised at checkout

Purchases are for personal use only

Institutional subscriptions

Similar content being viewed by others

References

  • American Psychiatric Association. (2013). Diagnostic and statistical manual of mental disorders (5th ed.). Washington, DC: Author.

    Book  Google Scholar 

  • Baldwin, S., Costely, D., & Warren, A. (2014). Employment activities and experiences of adults with high-functioning autism and asperger’s disorder. Journal of Autism Developmental Disorders, 44, 2440–2449. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10803-014-2112-z.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Baxter, J. H., Pike, G., & Reece, S. (2013). Legalisation: An unhealthy choice. Of Substance: The National Magazine on Alcohol, Tobacco and Other Drugs, 11(2), 12.

    Google Scholar 

  • Beard, L. A., Carpenter, L. B., & Johnson, L. B. (2007). Assistive technology: Access for all students. Upper Saddle River, NJ: Pearson.

    Google Scholar 

  • Bellini, S., Akullian, J., & Hopf, A. (2007). Increasing social engagement in young children with autism spectrum disorders using video self-modeling. School Psychology Review, 36(1), 80–91.

    Google Scholar 

  • Benedyk, R., Woodcock, A., & Harder, A. (2009). The hexagon-spindle model for educational ergonomics. Work, 32(3), 237–248.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Bishop, M., Donald, M. S., & Lindsey, S. (2007). Psychosocial adaptation and quality of life in multiple sclerosis: Assessment of the disability centrality model. Journal of Rehabilitation, 73(1), 3–12.

    Google Scholar 

  • Boff, K. R. (2006). Revolutions and shifting paradigms in human factors & ergonomics. Applied Ergonomics, 37(4), 391–399.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Burgess, S., & Cimera, R. E. (2014). Employment outcomes of transition-aged adults with Autism Spectrum Disorders: A State of the States report. American Journal on Intellectual and Developmental Disabilities, 119(1), 64–83.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Burke, R. V., Allen, K. D., Howard, M. R., Downey, D., Matz, M. G., & Bowen, S. L. (2013). Tablet-based video modeling and prompting in the workplace for individuals with autism. Journal of Vocational Rehabilitation, 38(1), 1–14. https://doi.org/10.3233/JVR-120616.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Camarena, P. M., & Sarigiani, P. A. (2009). Postsecondary educational aspirations of high-functioning adolescents with autism spectrum disorders and their parents. Focus on Autism and Other Developmental Disabilities, 24(2), 115–128.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Chiang, H., Cheung, Y. K., Li, H., & Tsai, L. Y. (2013). Factors associated with participation in employment for high school leavers with autism. Journal of Autism and Developmental Disorders, 43, 1832–1842.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Cihak, D. F., Fahrenkrog, C. D., Ayres, K. M., & Smith, C. (2009). The use of video modeling via a video iPod a system of least prompts to improve transitional behaviors for students with autism spectrum disorders in the general education classroom. Journal of Positive Behavior Interventions, 12(2), 103–115.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Cimera, R. E. (2010). Can community-based high school transition programs improve the cost-efficiency of supported employment. Career Development and Transition for Exceptional Individuals, 33(1), 4–12.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Cimera, R. E. (2012). The economics of supported employment: What new data tells us. Journal of Vocational Rehabilitation, 37(2), 109–117.

    Google Scholar 

  • Cimera, R.E., & Cowan, R.J. (2009). The costs of services and employment outcomes achieved by adults with autism in the U.S. Autism, 13(3), 285–302.

    Google Scholar 

  • Cullen, J. M., Alber-Morgan, S. R., Simmons-Reed, E. A., & Izzo, M. V. (2017). Effects of self-directed video prompting using iPads on the vocational task completion of young adults with intellectual and developmental disabilities. Journal of Vocational Rehabilitation, 46(3), 361–375.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Gentry, T., Kriner, R., Sima, A., McDonough, J., & Wehman, P. (2015). Reducing the need for personal supports among workers with autism using an iPod touch as an assistive technology: delayed randomized control trial. Journal of Autism and Developmental Disorders, 45(3), 669–684.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Gentry, T., Lau, S., Molinelli, A., Fallen, A., & Kriner, R. (2012). The Apple iPod Touch as a vocational support aid for adults with autism: Three case studies. Journal of Vocational Rehabilitation, 37(2), 75–85.

    Google Scholar 

  • Gentry, T., Wallace, J., Kvarfordt, C., & Lynch, K. B. (2010). Personal digital assistants as cognitive aids for high school students with autism: Results of a community-based trial. Journal of Vocational Rehabilitation, 32(2), 101–107.

    Google Scholar 

  • Gewurtz, R. E., Langan, S., & Shand, D. (2016). Hiring people with disabilities: A scoping review. Work, 54(1), 135–148.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Gotham, K., Bishop, S. L., Brunwasser, S., & Lord, C. (2014). Rumination and perceived impairment associated with depressive symptoms in a verbal adolescent–adult ASD sample. Autism Research, 7(3), 381–391.

    Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  • Granovetter, M. (1995). Getting a Job: A study of contacts and careers. Chicago, IL: University of Chicago Press.

    Book  Google Scholar 

  • Hagner, D., & Cooney, B. F. (2005). “I do that for everybody”: Supervising employees with autism. Focus On Autism And Other Developmental Disabilities, 20(2), 91–97.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Hassiotis, A., & Turk, J. (2012). Mental health needs in adolescents with intellectual disabilities: Cross-sectional survey of a service sample. Journal of Applied Research in Intellectual Disabilities, 25(3), 252–261.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Hedley, D., Uljarević, M., Cameron, L., Halder, S., Richdale, A., & Dissanayake, C. (2016). Employment programmes and interventions targeting adults with autism spectrum disorder: A systematic review of the literature. Autism. https://doi.org/10.1177/1362361316661855.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Hendricks, D. (2010). Employment and adults with autism spectrum disorders: Challenges and strategies for success. Journal of Vocational Rehabilitation, 32(2), 125–134.

    Google Scholar 

  • Hill, D. A., Belcher, L., Brigman, H. E., Renner, S., & Stephens, B. (2013). The Apple iPad™ as an innovative employment support for young adults with autism spectrum disorder and other developmental disabilities. Journal of Applied Rehabilitation Counseling, 44(1), 28–37.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Hiller, A. J., Fish, T., Siegel, J. H., & Beversdorf, D. Q. (2011). Social and vocational skills training reduces self-reported anxiety and depression among young adults on the autism spectrum. Journal of Developmental and Physical Disabilities, 23, 267–276.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Hillier, A., & Galizzi, M. (2014). Employment outcomes for young adults with autism spectrum disorders. Review of Disability Studies: An International Journal, 10(1 & 2).

    Google Scholar 

  • Holwerda, A., van der Klink, J. J. L., Groothoff, J. W., & Brouwer, S. (2012). Predictors for work participation in individuals with an Autism Spectrum Disorder: A systematic review. Journal of Occupational Rehabilitation, 22, 333–352.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Howlin, P., Goode, S., Hutton, J., & Rutter, M. (2004). Adult outcome for children with autism. Journal of Child Psychology and Psychiatry, 45, 212–229.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Howlin, P. (2000). Outcome in adult life for abler individuals with autism or Asperger syndrome. Autism, 4, 63–83.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Howlin, P., & Moss, P. (2012). Adults with autism spectrum disorders. The Canadian Journal of Psychiatry, 57, 275–283.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Kellems, R. O., & Morningstar, M. E. (2012). Using video modeling delivered through iPods to teach vocational tasks to young adults with autism spectrum disorders. Career Development and Transition for Exceptional Individuals, 35(3), 155–167.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Khalifa, G., Sharif, Z., Sultan, M., & Di Rezze, B. (2019). Workplace accommodations for adults with autism spectrum disorder: A scoping review. Disability and rehabilitation, 1–16.

    Google Scholar 

  • Loveland, K. A., & Tunali, B. (1991). Social scripts for conversational interactions in autism and Down syndrome. Journal of Autism and Developmental Disorders, 21(2), 177–186.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Mechling, L. C., & Savidge, E. J. (2011). Using a personal digital assistant to increase completion of novel tasks and independent transitioning by students with autism spectrum disorder. Journal of Autism and Developmental Disorders, 41(6), 687–704.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Meyer, N. M. (2016). Othering, ableism and disability: A discursive analysis of co-workers’ construction of colleagues with visible impairments. Human Relations, 69(6), 1341–1363.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Migliore, A., Grossi, T., Mank, D., & Rogan, P. (2008). Why do adults with intellectual disabilities work in sheltered workshops? Journal of Vocational Rehabilitation, 28(1), 29–40.

    Google Scholar 

  • Migliore, A., Mank, D., Grossi, T., & Rogan, P. (2007). Integrated employment or sheltered workshops: Preferences of adults with intellectual disabilities, their families and staff. Journal of Vocational Rehabilitation, 26(1), 5–19.

    Google Scholar 

  • Mitchell, P., Parsons, S., & Leonard, A. (2007). Using virtual environments for teaching social understanding to 6 adolescents with autistic spectrum disorders. Journal of Autism and Developmental Disorders, 37(3), 589–600.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Moore, D., Cheng, Y., McGrath, P., & Powell, N. J. (2005). Collaborative virtual environment technology for people with autism. Focus On Autism And Other Developmental Disabilities, 20(4), 231–243.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Mpofu & Mpofu (2018). Assessment. In M. Hartley & V. Taryvidas (Eds.). The professional practice of rehabilitation counseling (2nd ed, pp. 201–220), New York, NY.

    Google Scholar 

  • Müller, E., Schuler, A., Burton, B. A., & Yates, G. B. (2003). Meeting the vocational support needs of individuals with Asperger syndrome and other autism spectrum disabilities. Journal of Vocational Rehabilitation, 18(3), 163–175.

    Google Scholar 

  • Myles, B. S., Ferguson, H., & Hagiwara, T. (2007). Using a personal digital assistant to improve the recording of homework assignments by an adolescent with Asperger syndrome. Focus on Autism and Other Developmental Disabilities, 22(2), 96–99.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Nesbitt, S. (2000). Why and why not? Factors impacting employment for individuals with asperger syndrome, Autism, 4(4) (2000),357–369.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Newman, L., Wagner, M., Knokey, A.M., Marder, C., Nagle, K. Shaver, D., et al. (2011). The post-high school outcomes of young adults with disabilities up to 8 years after high school a report from the national longitudinal transition study-2 (NLTS2). NCSER 2011–3005. [S.l.]: Distributed by ERIC Clearinghouse.

    Google Scholar 

  • Nicholas, D. B., Attridge, M., Zwaigenbaum, L., & Clarke, M. (2015). Vocational support approaches in autism spectrum disorder: A synthesis review of the literature. Autism, 19(2), 235–245.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • O’Sullivan, M., & Kearney, G. (2018). Virtual reality (VR) technology: Empowering managers to reduce and eliminate accessibility barriers for people with autism spectrum disorders. In transforming our world through design, diversity and education: Proceedings of Universal Design and Higher Education in Transformation Congress 2018 (p. 253). IOS Press.

    Google Scholar 

  • Palmen, A., Didden, R., & Lang, R. (2012). A systematic review of behavioral intervention research on adaptive skill building in higher functioning young adults with autism spectrum disorder. Research in Autism Spectrum Disorders, 6(2), 602–617.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Parr, A. D., & Hunter, S. T. (2014). Enhancing work outcomes of employees with autism spectrum disorder through leadership: Leadership for employees with autism spectrum disorder. Autism, 18(5), 545–554.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Rashid, M., Thompson-Hodgetts, S., & Nicholas, D. (2018). Building employers’ capacity to support vocational opportunities for adults with developmental disabilities: A synthesis review of grey literature. Journal on Developmental Disabilities, 23(3), 31–45.

    Google Scholar 

  • Reichow, B., & Volkmar, F. R. (2010). Social skills interventions for individuals with autism: Evaluation for evidence-based practices within a best evidence synthesis framework. Journal of Autism and Developmental Disorders, 40(2), 149–166.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Richards, J. (2012). Examining the exclusion of employees with Asperger syndrome from the workplace. Personnel Review, 41(5), 630–646.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Rogers, B. (2000). Behaviour management: A whole-school approach. Sage.

    Google Scholar 

  • Roux, A. M., Shattuck, P. T., Cooper, B. P., Anderson, K. A., Narendorf, S. C., & Narendorf, S. (2012). Postsecondary employment experiences among young adults with an Autism Spectrun Disorder. Journal of Occupational Rehabilitation, 22(3), 333–352.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Ruef, M. B., & Turnbull, A. P. (2002). The perspectives of individuals with cognitive disabilities and/or autism on their lives and their problem behavior. Research and Practice for Persons with Severe Disabilities, 27(2), 125–140.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Scott, M., Falkmer, M., Girdler, S., & Falkmer, T. (2015). Viewpoints on factors for successful employment for adults with autism spectrum disorder. PLoS ONE, 10(10), e0139281.

    Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  • Shattuck, P. T., & Roux, A. M. (2015). Commentary on employments supports research. Autism, 19(2), 246–247.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Silver, K., & Parsons, S. (2015). Noticing the unusual: A self-prompt strategy for adults with autism. Advances in Autism, 1(2), 87–97.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Smith, D. L., Atmatzidis, K., Capogreco, M., Lloyd-Randolfi, D., & Seman, V. (2017). Evidence-based interventions for increasing work participation for persons with various disabilities: A systematic review. OTJR: Occupation, Participation and Health, 37(2_suppl), 3S-13S.

    Google Scholar 

  • Sperry, L. A., & Mesibov, G. B. (2005). Perceptions of social challenges of adults with autism spectrum disorder. Autism, 9(4), 362–376.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Standifer, S. (2009). Adult autism & employment: A guide for vocational rehabilitation professionals: Disability Policy and Studies. School of the Health Professions: University of Missouri.

    Google Scholar 

  • Stock, S. E., Davies, D. K., Davies, K. R., & Wehmeyer, M. L. (2006). Evaluation of an application for making palmtop computers accessible to individuals with intellectual disabilities. Journal of Intellectual and Developmental Disability, 31(1), 39–46.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Taylor, J. L., & Seltzer, M. M. (2011). Employment and post-secondary educational activities for young adults with autism disorders during the transition to adulthood. Journal of Autism and Developmental Disorders, 41, 566–574.

    Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  • Taylor, J. L., McPheeters, M. L., Sathe, N. A., Dove, D., Veenstra-VanderWeele, J., & Warren, Z. (2012). A systematic review of vocational interests for young adults with autism. Pediatrics, 130(3), 531–538.

    Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  • Taylor, J., & Seltzer, M. (2012). Developing a Vocational Index for Adults with Autism Spectrum Disorders. Journal of Autism and Developmental Disorders, 42(12), 2669–2679. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10803-012-1524-x.

    Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  • Wehman, P., Lau, S., Molinelli, A., & Brooke, V. (2012). Supported Employment for Young Adults with Autism Spectrum Disorder: Preliminary Data. Research & Practice for Persons with Severe Disabilities, 37(3), 160–169.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • White, S. W., Keonig, K., & Scahill, L. (2007). Social skills development in children with autism spectrum disorders: A review of the intervention research. Journal of Autism and Developmental Disorders, 37(10), 1858–1868.

    Article  Google Scholar 

Download references

Author information

Authors and Affiliations

  1. University of North Texas, Denton, USA

    Elias Mpofu, Timothy Tansey, Ngonidzashe Mpofu, Wei-Mo Tu & Qiwei Li

Authors
  1. Elias Mpofu
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

  2. Timothy Tansey
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

  3. Ngonidzashe Mpofu
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

  4. Wei-Mo Tu
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

  5. Qiwei Li
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

Corresponding author

Correspondence to Elias Mpofu .

Editor information

Editors and Affiliations

  1. Department of Human Resource Management, University of South Africa, Pretoria, Gauteng, South Africa

    Ingrid L. Potgieter

  2. Department of Human Resource Management, University of South Africa, Pretoria, Gauteng, South Africa

    Nadia Ferreira

  3. Department of Industrial and Organisational Psychology, University of South Africa, Pretoria, Gauteng, South Africa

    Melinde Coetzee

Rights and permissions

Reprints and permissions

Copyright information

© 2019 Springer Nature Switzerland AG

About this chapter

Check for updates. Verify currency and authenticity via CrossMark

Cite this chapter

Mpofu, E., Tansey, T., Mpofu, N., Tu, WM., Li, Q. (2019). Employment Practices with People with Autism Spectrum Disorder in the Digital Age. In: Potgieter, I., Ferreira, N., Coetzee, M. (eds) Theory, Research and Dynamics of Career Wellbeing . Springer, Cham. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-28180-9_15

Download citation

Publish with us

Policies and ethics

Search

Navigation