Skip to main content
SpringerLink
Log in

Research and Technology Outsourcing and Systems of Innovation

  • Chapter
Innovation Systems in the Service Economy

Part of the book series: Economics of Science, Technology and Innovation ((ESTI,volume 18))

Abstract

This chapter seeks to locate the process of research and technology outsourcing in relation to the wider innovation process and to investigate the growth of the phenomenon within a system of innovation framework. To reflect this, the chapter is in four main parts. The first main section outlines the factors behind the process of research and technology outsourcing process and explanatory models that have been used to conceptualise the process. The next section then charts the growth of research and technology outsourcing and puts in an historical perspective, linking up with the explanatory and conceptual frameworks presented in the preceding section. Developing some of these findings, the chapter then places the process of research and technology outsourcing within the wider systemic and market context before reviewing the implications of research and technological outsourcing more specifically within the’ system of innovation’ approach to innovation. These approaches centre on the’ systems of innovation’ model based originally on the ‘national systems of innovation’ (NSI) studies developed by Freeman (1987, 1988),Lundvall (1988, 1992) and Nelson (1992; Nelson and Rosenberg, 1993), but also includes the ‘technology system’ approach developed by Carlsson (1995).

This is a preview of subscription content, log in via an institution to check access.

Access this chapter

Log in via an institution
Chapter
USD 29.95
Price excludes VAT (USA)
  • Available as PDF
  • Read on any device
  • Instant download
  • Own it forever
eBook
USD 129.00
Price excludes VAT (USA)
  • Available as PDF
  • Read on any device
  • Instant download
  • Own it forever
Softcover Book
USD 169.99
Price excludes VAT (USA)
  • Compact, lightweight edition
  • Dispatched in 3 to 5 business days
  • Free shipping worldwide - see info
Hardcover Book
USD 169.99
Price excludes VAT (USA)
  • Durable hardcover edition
  • Dispatched in 3 to 5 business days
  • Free shipping worldwide - see info

Tax calculation will be finalised at checkout

Purchases are for personal use only

Institutional subscriptions

Preview

Unable to display preview. Download preview PDF.

Unable to display preview. Download preview PDF.

References

  • Andersen, E.F. and Lundvall, D-A. ‘National Innovation Systems and the Dynamics of the Division of Labor’ in Edquist, C. (ed.), Systems of Innovation: Technologies, Institutions and Organizations, London: Pinter, 1997; pp.242–265.

    Google Scholar 

  • Archibugi, D., Howells, J. and Michie, J. ‘Innovation Systems and Policy in a Global Economy’ in Archibugi, D., Howells, J. and Michie, J. (eds.), Innovation Policy in a Global Economy, Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1999, pp. 1–16.

    Google Scholar 

  • Archibugi, D. and Simonetti, R. ‘Objects and Subjects in Technological Interdependence: Towards a Framework to Monitor Innovation’, International Journal of the Economics of Business, 1998; 5, pp.295–309.

    Google Scholar 

  • Arora, A. and Gambardella, A. ‘Complimentarity and External Linkages: The Strategies of the Large Firms in Biotechnology’, Journal of Industrial Economics, 1990; 38, pp.361–379.

    Google Scholar 

  • Bergen, S.A. R&D Management: Managing Projects and New Products, Oxford: Basil Blackwell, 1990.

    Google Scholar 

  • Blalock, H.M. and Blalock, A. ‘Toward a Clarification of System Analysis in the Social Sciences’, Philosophy of Science, 1959; 26, pp.84–92.

    Google Scholar 

  • Boulding, K.E. The World as a Total System, Beverly Hills, CA: Sage, 1985.

    Google Scholar 

  • Byatt, LCR. The British Electrical Industry, 1875-1914, Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1979.

    Google Scholar 

  • Brockhoff, K. ‘R&D Co-operation Between Firms — A Perceived Transaction Cost Perspective’, Management Science, 1992; 38, pp.514–524.

    Google Scholar 

  • Breschi, S. and Malerba, F. ‘Sectoral Innovation Systems: Technological Regimes, Schumpeterian Dynamics, and Spatial Boundaries’ in Edquist, C. (ed.), Systems of Innovation: Technologies, Institutions and Organizations, London: Pinter, 1997, pp.130–156.

    Google Scholar 

  • Buckley, P.J. and Chapman, M. ‘The Perception and Measurement of Transaction Costs’, Cambridge Journal of Economics, 1997; 21, pp. 127–145.

    Google Scholar 

  • Carlsson, B. ‘The Technological System for Factory Automation: An International Comparison’ in Carlsson, B. (ed.), Technological Systems and Economic Performance: The Case of Factory Automation, Dordrecht: Kluwer, 1995, pp.441–475.

    Google Scholar 

  • Carlsson, B. and Stankiewicz, R. ‘On the Nature, Function and Composition of Technological Systems’, Journal of Evolutionary Economics, 1991; 1(2), pp.93–118.

    Google Scholar 

  • Charles, D. and Howells, J. Technology Transfer in Europe: Public and Private Networks, London: Belhaven Press, 1992.

    Google Scholar 

  • Chatterje, D. ‘Accessing External Sources of Technology’, Research Technology Management, 1996; 39(2),pp.48–56.

    Google Scholar 

  • Chen, S-H. ‘Decision-Making in Research and Development Collaboration’, Research Policy, 1997; 26, pp.121–135.

    Google Scholar 

  • Chesbrough, H. and Teece, D.J. ‘When is Virtual Virtuous?’, Harvard Business Review, 1996; (Jan-Feb.), pp.65–73.

    Google Scholar 

  • Chiesa, V. and Manzini, R. ‘Managing Virtual R&D Organizations: Lessons from the Pharmaceutical Industry’, International Journal of Technology Management, 1997; 13, pp.471–485.

    Google Scholar 

  • Coase, R. ‘The Nature of the Firm’, Economics 1937; 4, pp.386–405.

    Google Scholar 

  • Coombs, R. ‘Core Competencies and the Strategic Management of R&D’, R&D Management, 1996; 26,pp.345–355.

    Google Scholar 

  • Coombs, R. and Metcalfe, J.S. ‘Distributed Capabilities and the Governance of the Firm’, CRIC Discussion Paper, No. 16, ESRC Centre for Research in Innovation and Competition, University of Manchester, Manchester, 1998.

    Google Scholar 

  • Cook, P.L. ‘Research and Development Networks and Markets in a Complex Industry: The Example of Offshore Oil Equipment’ in Saunders, CT. (ed.), Industrial Policies and Structural Change, London: Macmillan, 1987; pp.105–117.

    Google Scholar 

  • Cooper, A.C. ‘Spin-Offs and Technical Entrepreneurship’, IEEE Transactions on Engineering Management, 1971; 18(1), pp.2–6.

    Google Scholar 

  • Croisier, B. ‘The Governance of External Research: Empirical Test of Some Transaction-Cost Related Factors’, R&D Management, 1998; 28, pp.289–298.

    Google Scholar 

  • Davis-Blake, A. and Uzzi, B. ‘Determinants of Employment Externalization: A Study of Temporary Workers and Independent Contractors’, Administrative Science Quarterly, 1993; 38, pp.195–223.

    Google Scholar 

  • Dickson, K., Lawton Smith, H. and Smith, S. ‘The Small Firm Perspective on Inter-Firm Collaboration for Innovation’ in O’Doherty, D. (ed.), The Co-operation Phenomenon: Prospects for Small Firms and the Small Economies, London: Graham Trotham, 1990, pp.51–70.

    Google Scholar 

  • Dore, R. Flexible Rigidities: Industrial Policy and Structural Adjustment in the Japanese Economy: 1970-1980, London: Athlone Press, 1986.

    Google Scholar 

  • Edgerton, D.E.H. and Horrocks, S.M. ‘British Industrial Research and Development Before 1945’, Economic History Review, 1994; XLVII, pp.213–238.

    Google Scholar 

  • Elfring, T. and Baven, G. ‘Outsourcing Technical Services: Stages of Development’,Long Range Planning, 1994; 27(5), pp.42–51.

    Google Scholar 

  • Elfring, T. and Baven, G. ‘Spinning-Off Capabilities: Competence Development in Knowledge-Intensive Services’ in Sanchez, R. Heene, A. and Thomas, H. (eds.), Dynamics of Competence-Based Competition: Theory and Practice in the New Strategic Management, Oxford: Pergamon, 1996; pp.209–225.

    Google Scholar 

  • Englander, E.J. ‘Technology and Oliver Williamson’s Transaction Cost Economics’, Journal of Economic Behavior and Organization, 1988; 10, pp.339–353.

    Google Scholar 

  • Foray, D. ‘Generation and Distribution of Technological Knowledge: Incentives, Norms and Institutions’ in Edquist, C. (ed.), Systems of Innovation: Technologies, Institutions and Organizations, London: Pinter, 1997, pp.64–85.

    Google Scholar 

  • Freeman, C. The Economics of Industrial Innovation, London: Pinter Publishers, Second Edition, 1982.

    Google Scholar 

  • Freeman, C. Technology Policy and Economic Performance: Lessons from Japan, London: Frances Pinter, 1987.

    Google Scholar 

  • Freeman, C. ‘Japan: A New National System of Innovation?’ in Dosi, G., Freeman, C., Nelson, R., Silverberg, G. and Soete, L. (eds.), Technological Change and Economic Theory, London: Pinter, 1988, pp.330–348.

    Google Scholar 

  • Freeman, C. ‘Networks of Innovators: A Synthesis of Research Issues’, Research Policy, 1991; 20, pp.499–514.

    Google Scholar 

  • Freeman, C. and Soete, L. The Economics of Industrial Innovation, London, Pinter, Third Edition, 1997.

    Google Scholar 

  • Gibbons, M., Limoges, C., Nowotny, H., Schwartzman, S., Scott, P. and Troiw, M. The New Production of Knowledge: The Dynamics of Science and Research in Contemporary Societies, London: Sage, 1994.

    Google Scholar 

  • Graham, M.B.W. ‘Corporate Research and Development: The Latest Transformation’,Technology in Society, 1985; 7(2–3), pp.86–102.

    Google Scholar 

  • Håkansson, H. (ed.). Industrial Technological Development — A Network Approach, London: Croom Helm, 1987.

    Google Scholar 

  • Hall, R. ‘The Strategic Analysis of Intangible Resources’, Strategic Management Review, 1992; 13, pp.135–144.

    Google Scholar 

  • Hall, A.D. and Fagen, R.E. ‘Definition of Wystem’, General Systems Yearbook, 1956; 1, pp.18–28.

    Google Scholar 

  • Haour, G. ‘Stretching the Knowledge-Base of the Enterprise Through Contract Research’,R&D Management, 1992; 22, pp.177–182.

    Google Scholar 

  • Häusler, J., Hohn, H-W. and Lütz, S. ‘Contingencies of Innovative Networks: A Case Study of Successful Interfirm R&D Collaboration’, Research Policy, 1994; 23, pp.47–66.

    Google Scholar 

  • Hicks, D. and Katz, J.S. ‘Science Policy for a Highly Collaborative Science System’, Science and Public Policy, 1996; 23, pp.39–44.

    Google Scholar 

  • Homburg, E. ‘The Emergence of Research Laboratories in the Dyestuffs Industry, 1870-1900’, British Journal of the History of Science, 1992; 25, pp.91–111.

    Google Scholar 

  • Howells, J. ‘Externalisation and the Formation of New Industrial Operations’,Area, 1989; 21, pp.289–299.

    Google Scholar 

  • Howells, J. ‘Research and Technology Outsourcing’, Technology Analysis & Strategic Management, 1999a; 11, pp.591–603.

    Google Scholar 

  • Howells, J. ‘Regional Innovation Systems?’ in Archibugi, D., Howells, J. and Michie, J. (eds.), Innovation Policy in a Global Economy, Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1999b, pp.67–93.

    Google Scholar 

  • Howells, J. ‘Research and Technology Outsourcing and Innovation Systems: An Exploratory Analysis’, Industry and Innovation, 1999c, 6, pp. 111–129.

    Google Scholar 

  • Jones, O, ‘From Post-It Notes to Post-Modernism: Organisations, Innovation and Virtual R&D’, Research Paper Series, 1997; 9733, Aston Business School, Aston University, Birmingham.

    Google Scholar 

  • Katz, J.S. and Martin, B.R. ‘What is Research Collaboration?’, Research Policy, 1997; 26, pp.1–18.

    Google Scholar 

  • Klepper, S. ‘Entry, Exit, Growth and Innovation over the Product Life Cycle’, American Economic Review, 1996; 86, pp.562–583.

    Google Scholar 

  • Kluth, M.F, and Andersen, J.B. ‘Pooling the Technology Base: The Globalization of European Research and Technology Organizations’ in Howells, J. and Michie, J. (eds.), Technology, Innovation and Competitiveness, Cheltenham, UK and Lyme, US: Edward Elgar, 1997; pp.65–88.

    Google Scholar 

  • Kreiner, K. and Schultz, M. ‘Informal Collaboration in R&D: The Formation of Networks Across Organizations’, Organization Studies, 1993; 14, pp. 189–209.

    Google Scholar 

  • Liebenau, J.M. ‘International R&D in Pharmaceutical Firms in the Early Twentieth Century’, Business History, 1984; 26, pp.329–346.

    Google Scholar 

  • Liebenau, J.M. ‘Innovation in Pharmaceuticals: Industrial R&D in the Early Twentieth Century’, Research Policy, 1985; 14, pp. 179–187.

    Google Scholar 

  • Lowe, J. and Taylor, P. ‘Ramp;D and Technology Purchase Through Licence Agreements: Complementary Strategies and Complementary Assets’, R&D Management, 1998; 28, pp.263–278.

    Google Scholar 

  • Lynn, L.H., Reddy, N.M. and Aram, J.D. ‘Linking Technology and Institutions: The Innovation Community Framework’, Research Policy, 1996; 25, pp.91–106.

    Google Scholar 

  • Lundvall, B-Å. ‘Introduction’ in Lundvall, B-Å. (ed.), National Systems of Innovation: Towards a Theory of Innovation and Interactive Learning, London: Pinter, 1992; pp. 1–19.

    Google Scholar 

  • Lundvall, B-Å. ‘Technology Policy in the Learning Economy’ in Archibugi, D., Howells, J. and Michie, J. (eds.), Innovation Policy in a Global Economy, Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1999; pp.19–34.

    Google Scholar 

  • MacNeil, I. ‘Contracts: Adjustment of Long-Term Economic Relations Under Classical, Neoclassical, and Relational Contract Law’, Northwestern University Law Review, 1978; 72, pp.854–906.

    Google Scholar 

  • MacPherson, A. ‘The Role of Producer Service Outsourcing in the Innovation Performance of New York State Manufacturing Firms’, Annals of the Association of American Geographers, 1997; 87, pp.52–71.

    Google Scholar 

  • Malerba, F. and Orsenigo, L. ‘Schumpeterian Patterns of Innovation’, Cambridge Journal of Economics, 1995; 19, pp.47–65.

    Google Scholar 

  • Malerba, F. and Orsenigo, L. ‘Technological Regimes and Sectoral Patterns of Innovative Activities’, Industrial and Corporate Change, 1997; 6, pp.83–117.

    Google Scholar 

  • Marsch, U. ‘Strategies for Success: Research Organization in German Chemical Companies and IG Farben until 1936’, History and Technology, 1994; 12, pp.25–77.

    Google Scholar 

  • Mason, G. and Wagner, K. ‘High Level Skills, Knowledge Transfer and Industrial Performance: Electronics in Britain and Germany’, Industry and Innovation, 1999; 6, pp.85–109.

    Google Scholar 

  • Meyer-Thurow, G. ‘The Industrialization of Invention: A Case Study from the German Chemical Industry’, Isis, 1982; 73, pp.363–381.

    Google Scholar 

  • Miller, R. ‘Global R&D Networks and Large-Scale Innovations: The Case of the Automobile Industry’, Research Policy, 1994; 23, pp.27–46.

    Google Scholar 

  • Mowery, D.C. ‘The Relationship Between Intrafirm and Contractual Forms of Industrial Research in American Manufacturing, 1900-1940’, Explorations in Economic History, 1983; 20, pp.351–374.

    Google Scholar 

  • Mowery, D.C. ‘Firm Structure, Government Policy, and the Organization of Industrial Research: Great Britain and the United States, 1900-1950’, Business History Review, 1984; 58, pp.504–531.

    Google Scholar 

  • Mowery, D.C. and Rosenberg, N. Technology and the Pursuit of Economic Growth, Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1989.

    Google Scholar 

  • Nelson, R.R. ‘National Innovation Systems: A Retrospective on a Study’,Industrial and Corporate Change, 1992; 1(2), pp.347–374.

    Google Scholar 

  • Nelson, R.R. and Rosenberg, N. ‘Technical Innovation and National Systems’ in Nelson, R.R. (ed.), National Innovation Systems: A Comparative Analysis, New York: Oxford University Press, 1993;pp.3–21.

    Google Scholar 

  • Oliver, N. and Blakeborough, M. ‘The Multi Firm New Product Development Process’ in Grieve-Smith, J. and Michie, J. (eds.), Innovation, Co-operation and Growth, Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1998; pp 151–160.

    Google Scholar 

  • Ouchi, W.G. ‘Markets, Bureaucracies and Clans’, Administrative Science Quarterly,1980; 25, pp. 129–141.

    Google Scholar 

  • Ouchi, W.G. and Bolton, M.K. ‘The Logic of Joint Research and Development’, California Management Review, 1988; 30(3), pp.9–19.

    Google Scholar 

  • Penrose, E. The Theory of the Growth of the Firm, Oxford: Basil Blackwell, 1959.

    Google Scholar 

  • Phillips, A. ‘A Theory of Interfirm Organization’, Quarterly Journal of Economics, 1960; 74, pp.602–613.

    Google Scholar 

  • Pisano, G.P. ‘The R&D Boundaries of the Firm: An Empirical Analysis’, Administrative Science Quarterly, 1990; 35, pp.153–176.

    Google Scholar 

  • Pisano, G.P. ‘Knowledge, Integration and the Locus of Learning: An Empirical Analysis of Process Development’, Strategic Management Journal, 1994; 15, pp.85–100.

    Google Scholar 

  • Pisano, G.P., Shaw, W. and Teece, D.J. ‘Joint Ventures and Collaboration in the Biotechnology Industry’ in Mowery, D.C. (ed.), International Collaborative Ventures in U.S. Manufacturing, Cambridge, Mass.: Ballinger, 1988; pp. 182–222.

    Google Scholar 

  • Powell, W.W. ‘Neither Market Nor Hierarchy: Network Forms of Organization’, Research in Organizational Behaviour, 1990; 12, pp.295–336.

    Google Scholar 

  • Prahalad, C. and Hamel, G. ‘The Core Competence of the Corporation’, Harvard Business Review, 1990;68, pp.79–91.

    Google Scholar 

  • Reddy, N.M. and Rao, M.V.H. ‘The Industrial Market as an Interfirm Organization’, Journal of Management Studies, 1990; 27, pp.42–59.

    Google Scholar 

  • Richardson, G.B. ‘The Organization of Industry’, Economic Journal, 1972; 82, pp.372–383.

    Google Scholar 

  • Ringe, M.J. The Contract Research Business in the United Kingdom: The European Dimension, Luxembourg: Report to the Directorate General for Telecommunications, Information Industries and Innovation, Commission of the European Communities, 1992.

    Google Scholar 

  • Robins, J.A. ‘Organizational Economics: Notes on the Use of Transaction-Cost Theory in the Study of Organizations’, Administrative Science Quarterly, 1987; 32, pp.68–86.

    Google Scholar 

  • Rose, A. ‘Transfers of Funds for Research and Development in Canadian Industry, 1993’, Science and Technology Redesign Project Working Paper, 1997; ST-97-05, Statistics Canada, Ottawa.

    Google Scholar 

  • Rothwell, R. ‘External Networking and Innovation in Small and Medium-Sized Manufacturing Firms in Europe’, Technovation, 1991; 11, pp.93–112.

    Google Scholar 

  • Sanderson, M. ‘Research and the Firm in British Industry, 1919-39’, Science Studies, 1972; 2, pp.107–151.

    Google Scholar 

  • Sen, F. and Rubenstein, A.H. ‘An Exploration of Factors Affecting thé Integration of In-House R&D with External Technology Acquisition Strategies of a Firm’, IEEE Transactions on Engineering Management, 1990; 37(4), pp.246–258.

    Google Scholar 

  • Sikka, P. ‘Analysis of In-House R&D Centres of Innovative Firms in India’, Research Policy, 1998; 27,pp.429–433.

    Google Scholar 

  • Simon, H. Models of Man, New York: John Wiley & Son, 1957.

    Google Scholar 

  • Smith, K. ‘Economic Infrastructures and Innovation Systems’ in Edquist, C. (ed.), Systems of Innovation: Technologies, Institutions and Organizations, London: Pinter, 1997; pp.86–106.

    Google Scholar 

  • Swann, J.P. Academic Scientists and the Pharmaceutical Industry: Co-operative Research in Twentieth-Century America, Boston, Mass.: John Hopkins University Press, 1989.

    Google Scholar 

  • Thomas, L.G. ‘Multifirm Strategies in the U.S. Pharmaceutical Industry’ in Mowery, D.C. (ed.), International Collaborative Ventures in U.S. Manufacturing, Cambridge, Mass.: Ballinger, 1988; pp.147–181.

    Google Scholar 

  • Turpin, T., Garrett-Jones, S. and Rankin, N. ‘Bricoleurs and Boundary Riders: Managing Basic Research and Innovation Knowledge Networks’, R&D Management, 1996; 26, pp.267–282.

    Google Scholar 

  • Tyler, B.B. and Steensma, H.K. ‘Evaluating Technological Collaborative Opportunities: A Cognitive Modelling Perspective’, Strategic Management Journal, 1995; 16, pp.43–70.

    Google Scholar 

  • Varma, R. ‘Restructuring Corporate R&D: From an Autonomous to a Linkage Model’, Technology Analysis & Strategic Management, 1993; 7, pp.231–245.

    Google Scholar 

  • Veugelers, R. ‘Internal R&D Expenditures and External TechnologySourcing’, Research Policy, 1997; 26,pp.303–315.

    Google Scholar 

  • von Emloh, D.A., Pearson, A.W. and Ball, D.F. ‘The Use of R&D in International Process Plant Contracting’, International journal of Technology Management, 1994; 9(1), pp.61–76.

    Google Scholar 

  • Von Hippel, E. ‘Co-operation Between Rivals: Informal Know-How Trading’, Research Policy, 1987; 16,pp.291–302.

    Google Scholar 

  • Whittington, R. ‘The Changing Structure of R&D: From Centralization to Fragmentation’ in Loveridge, R. and Pitt, M. (eds.), The Strategic Management of Technological Innovation, London: Wiley, 1990;pp.183–203.

    Google Scholar 

  • Winter, S. ‘Knowledge and Competence as Strategic Assets’ in Teece, D. (ed.), The Competitive Challenge: Strategies for Industrial Innovation and Renewal, Cambridge, Mass: Ballinger, 1987; pp. 159–183.

    Google Scholar 

  • Williamson, O.E. ‘Markets and Hierarchies: Some Elementary Considerations’, American Economic Review, 1973; 63, pp.316–325.

    Google Scholar 

  • Williamson, O.E. Markets and Hierarchies: Analysis and Antitrust Implications, New York: Free Press, 1975.

    Google Scholar 

  • Williamson, O.E. ‘Transaction Cost Economics: The Governance of Contractual Relations’, Journal of Law and Economics, 1979; 22, pp.233–261.

    Google Scholar 

  • Williamson, O.E. Economic Organisation: Firms, Markets and Policy Control, New York: Harvester Wheatsheaf, 1986.

    Google Scholar 

  • Williamson, O.E. ‘Comparative Economic Organisations: The Analysis of Discrete Structural Alternatives’, Administrative Science Quarterly, 1991; 36, pp.269–296.

    Google Scholar 

  • Williamson, O.E. The Mechanisms of Governance, Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1996.

    Google Scholar 

Download references

Authors
  1. Jeremy Howells
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

Editor information

Editors and Affiliations

  1. ESRC Center for Research on Innovation and Competition, The University of Manchester, UK

    J. Stanley Metcalfe  & Ian Miles  & 

Rights and permissions

Reprints and permissions

Copyright information

© 2000 Springer Science+Business Media New York

About this chapter

Cite this chapter

Howells, J. (2000). Research and Technology Outsourcing and Systems of Innovation. In: Metcalfe, J.S., Miles, I. (eds) Innovation Systems in the Service Economy. Economics of Science, Technology and Innovation, vol 18. Springer, Boston, MA. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-1-4615-4425-8_13

Download citation

  • DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/978-1-4615-4425-8_13

  • Publisher Name: Springer, Boston, MA

  • Print ISBN: 978-1-4613-6992-9

  • Online ISBN: 978-1-4615-4425-8

  • eBook Packages: Springer Book Archive

Publish with us

Policies and ethics

Search

Navigation