Abstract
The CI-based methods for measuring the APSD properties of OIP-produced aerosols are complex, exacting, and laborious to undertake. Yet they are the only accepted methods by regulatory agencies worldwide for determining particle aerodynamic size-related properties. In 2003, a group within the Product Quality Research Institute (PQRI), a body set up by pharmaceutical industry, the FDA, and academia to explore complex scientific and regulatory problems, developed a guide to good cascade impactor practices (GCIP). This chapter contains a review of the essence of their work, augmented by developments that have taken place since the original article was published.
Access this chapter
Tax calculation will be finalised at checkout
Purchases are for personal use only
References
Nichols S (2004) Particle size distribution parameters using the next generation pharmaceutical impactor. In: Dalby RN, Byron PR, Peart J, Suman JD, Farr SJ (eds) Respiratory drug delivery-IX. Davis HealthCare International Publishing, River Grove, IL, pp 485–487
Bonam M, Christopher D, Cipolla D, Donovan B, Goodwin D, Holmes S, Lyapustina S, Mitchell J, Nichols S, Petterson G, Quale C, Rao N, Singh D, Tougas T, Van Oort M, Walther B, Wyka B (2008) Minimizing variability of cascade impaction measurements in inhalers and nebulizers. AAPS PharmSciTech 9(2):404–413
Christopher D, Curry P, Doub B, Furnkranz K, Lavery M, Lin K, Lyapustina S, Mitchell J, Rogers B, Strickland H, Tougas T, Tsong Y, Wyka B (2003) Considerations for the development and practice of cascade impaction testing including a mass balance failure investigation tree. J Aerosol Med 16:235–247
US Food and Drug Administration (FDA) (1998) CDER. Draft guidance for industry metered dose inhaler (MDI) and dry powder inhaler (DPI) drug products chemistry, manufacturing, and controls documentation, Rockville, MD. Accessed 6 Jan 2012 at http://www.fda.gov/cder/guidance/2180dft.pdf
Marple VA, Roberts DL, Romay FJ, Miller NC, Truman KG, Van Oort M, Olsson B, Holroyd MJ, Mitchell JP, Hochrainer D (2003) Next generation pharmaceutical impactor. Part 1: design. J Aerosol Med 16(3):283–299
Purewal TS (2001) Test methods for inhalers to check performance under normal use and unintentional use conditions. In: Drug delivery to the lungs-12. The Aerosol Society, London, pp 92–98
Stewart E, Holt J, Fitzgerald C, Bell P, Popow J (2006) Impact of using an automated shake-fire system on the shot weight and dose content uniformity of an HFA metered dose inhaler. In: Dalby RN, Byron PR, Peart J, Suman JD, Farr SJ (eds) Respiratory drug delivery-2006. Davis Healthcare International Publishing, River Grove, IL, pp 581–583
Miller NC, Roberts DL, Marple VA (2002) The ‘Service Head’ approach to automating the next generation pharmaceutical impactor: proof of concept. In: Dalby RN, Byron PR, Peart J, Farr SJ (eds) Respiratory drug delivery VIII. Davis Horwood International, Raleigh, NC, pp 521–523
Holzner PM, Muller BW (1995) Particle size determination of metered dose inhalers with inertial separation methods: apparatus A and B (BP), four stage impinger and Andersen Mark II cascade impactor. Int J Pharm 116(1):11–18
Mitchell JP, Nagel MW, Wiersema KJ, Doyle CC (2003) Aerodynamic particle size analysis of aerosols from pressurized metered dose inhalers: comparison of Andersen 8-stage cascade impactor, next generation pharmaceutical impactor, and model 3321 Aerodynamic Particle Sizer aerosol spectrometer. AAPS PharmSciTech 4(4):article 54. Accessed 10 Jan 2012 at: http://www.aapspharmscitech.org/view.asp?art=pt040454%26;pdf=yes
Taki M, Zeng XM, Marriott C, Martin G (2006) Comparison of deposition profiles of drugs from a combination dry powder inhaler using the Andersen cascade impactor (ACI), multistage liquid impinger (MSLI) and next generation impactor (NGI). In: Dalby RN, Byron PR, Peart J, Suman JD, Farr SJ (eds) Respiratory drug delivery-2006. Davis Healthcare International Publishing, River Grove, IL, pp 659–662
Jozwiakowski J, Lor X, Paulson S, Schultz D (2006) Comparison of Andersen cascade impactor and next generation impactor performance of beclomethasone pMDIs with oligolactic acid. In: Dalby RN, Byron PR, Peart J, Suman JD, Farr SJ (eds) Respiratory drug delivery-2006. Davis Healthcare International Publishing, River Grove, IL, pp 357–359
Mitchell JP, Nagel MW (2004) Particle size analysis of aerosols from medicinal inhalers. KONA Powder Part 22:32–65
Roberts DL, Mitchell JP (2011) Influence of stage efficiency curves on full-resolution impactor data interpretation. Drug delivery to the lungs-22. The Aerosol Society, Edinburgh, pp 181–184. Available at: http://ddl-conference.org.uk/index.php?q=previous_conferences. Visited 4 Aug 2012
Finlay WH, Stapleton KW (1999) Undersizing of droplets from a vented nebulizer caused by aerosol heating during transit through an Andersen impactor. J Aerosol Sci 30(1):105–109
Mitchell JP (2000) Particle standards: their development and application. KONA Powder Part 18:41–59
Marple VA, Olson BA, Santhanakrishnan K, Mitchell JP, Murray SC, Hudson-Curtis BL (2003) Next generation pharmaceutical impactor (a new impactor for pharmaceutical inhaler testing)—Part 2: archival calibration. J Aerosol Med 16(3):301–324
Chambers F, Ali A, Mitchell J, Shelton C, Nichols S (2010) Cascade impactor (CI) mensuration—an assessment of the accuracy and precision of commercially available optical measurement systems. AAPS PharmSciTech 11(1):472–484
Roberts DL, Romay FJ (2005) Relationship of stage mensuration data to the performance of new and used cascade impactors. J Aerosol Med 18(4):396–413
European Directorate for the Quality of Medicines and Healthcare (EDQM). Preparations for inhalation: aerodynamic assessment of fine particles. (2012) Section 2.9.18—European Pharmacopeia [—Apparatus B in versions up to 4th edn. 2002] Council of Europe, 67075, Strasbourg, France
United States Pharmacopeial Convention (USP) (2012) Chapter 601: Aerosols, metered-dose inhalers, and dry powder inhalers. USP35-NF30, Rockville, MD
Roberts DL (2009) Theory of multi-nozzle impactor stages and the interpretation of stage mensuration data. Aerosol Sci Technol 43(11):1119–1129
Svensson M, Pettersson G, Asking L (2005) Mensuration and cleaning of the jets in Andersen cascade impactors. Pharm Res 22(1):161–165
Milhomme K, Dunbar C, Lavarreda D, Roberts D, Romay F (2006) Measuring changes in the effective jet diameter of cascade impactor stages with the flow resistance monitor. In: Dalby RN, Byron PR, Peart J, Suman JD, Farr SJ (eds) Respiratory drug delivery-2006. Davis Healthcare International Publishing, River Grove, IL, pp 405–407
Stein SW, Olson BA (1997) Variability in size distribution measurements obtained using multiple Andersen mark II cascade impactors. Pharm Res 14(12):1718–1725
Stein SW (1999) Size distribution measurements of metered dose inhalers using Andersen mark II cascade impactors. Int J Pharm 186(1):43–52
Kadrichu N, Rao N, Sluggett G, Fong B, Jones G, Perrone T, Seshadri S, Shao P, Williams G, Zhang J, Bennett D (2004) Sensitivity of Andersen cascade impactor response to stage nozzle dimensions. In: Dalby RN, Byron PR, Peart J, Suman JD, Farr SJ (eds) Respiratory drug delivery-IX. Davis Healthcare International Publishing, River Grove, IL, pp 561–564
Marple VA, Rubow KL, Olson BA (2001) Inertial, gravitational, centrifugal, and thermal collection techniques. In: Baron PA, Willeke K (eds) Aerosol measurement: principles, techniques and applications, 2nd edn. Wiley, New York, NY, pp 229–260
Asking L, Mitchell J, Nichols S (2008) Air flow meters used at testing of inhalation products—an inter-laboratory comparison, Drug delivery to the lungs-19. The Aerosol Society, Edinburgh, UK, pp 42–44, Available at: http://ddl-conference.org.uk/index.php?q=previous_conferences. Visited 4 Aug 2012
Olsson B, Asking L (2002) Methods of setting and measuring flowrates in pharmaceutical impactor experiments, 13th edn, Drug delivery to the lungs-13. The Aerosol Society, London, pp 205–208
Wiktorsson B, Asking L (2002) Comparison between flowmeters used to set flows in pharmaceutical inhaler testing, 13th edn, Drug delivery to the lungs-13. The Aerosol Society, London, pp 168–171
Van Oort M, Downey B, Roberts W (1996) Verification of operating the Andersen cascade impactor at different flowrates. Pharm Forum 22(2):2211–2215
Mitchell JP, Nagel MW (2003) Cascade impactors for the size characterization of aerosols from medical inhalers: their uses and limitations. J Aerosol Med 16(4):341–377
Copley M, Smurthwaite M, Roberts DL, Mitchell JP (2005) Revised internal volumes of cascade impactors for those provided by Mitchell and Nagel. J Aerosol Med 18(3):364–366
Stein S, Myrdal PB (2006) The relative influence of atomization and evaporation on metered dose inhaler drug delivery efficiency. Aerosol Sci Technol 40(5):335–347
Peng C, Chow A, Chan CK (2000) Study of the hygroscopic properties of selected pharmaceutical aerosols using single particle levitation. Pharm Res 17(9):1104–1109
Finlay WH (1998) Estimating the type of hygroscopic behavior exhibited by aqueous droplets. J Aerosol Med 11(4):221–229
Byron PR, Davis SS, Bubb MD, Cooper P (1977) Pharmaceutical implications of particle growth at high relative humidities. Pesticide Sci 8(5):521–526
Martin AR, Finlay WH (2004) Effect of humidity on size distributions of MDI particles exiting a mechanical ventilation holding chamber. In: Proceedings of international conference on MEMS, NANO and Smart Systems, 2004. ICMENS, Banff, Alberta, Canada, pp 280–283. Available at: http://www.computer.org/portal/web/csdl/doi/10.1109/ICMENS.2004.57. Visited 10 Jan 2012
Byron PR, Peart J, Staniforth JN (1997) Aerosol electrostatics I: properties of fine powders before and after aerosolization by dry powder inhalers. Pharm Res 14(6):698–705
Murtomaa M, Mellin V, Harjunen P, Lankinen T, Laine E, Lehto VP (2004) Effect of particle morphology on the triboelectrification in dry powder inhalers. Int J Pharm 282(1–2):107–114
Carter PA, Cassidy OE, Rowley G, Merrifield DR (1997) Triboelectrification of fractionated crystalline and spray dried lactose. Pharm Pharmacol Commun 4:111–115
Carter PA, Rowley G, McEntee NJ (1997) An investigation of experimental variables during triboelectrification studies on powders. J Pharm Pharmacol 49(S4):23
Murtomaa M, Strengella S, Lainea E, Bailey A (2003) Measurement of electrostatic charge of an aerosol using a grid-probe. J Electrostat 58(3–4):197–207
Ramirez-Dorronsoro J-C, Jacko RB, Kildsig DO (2006) Chargeability measurements of selected pharmaceutical dry powders to assess their electrostatic charge control capabilities. AAPS PharmSciTechnol 7(4):article 103 (2006), Available at: http://www.aapspharmscitech.org/view.asp?art=pt0704103. Accessed 10 Jan 2012
Kwok PCL, Glover W, Chan HK (2005) Electrostatic charge characteristics of aerosols produced from metered dose inhalers. J Pharm Sci 94(12):2789–2799
Glover W, Kwok P, Chan HK (2004) Electrostatic charges in metered dose inhalers. In: Dalby RN, Byron PR, Peart J, Suman JD, Farr SJ (eds) Respiratory drug delivery-IX. Davis Healthcare International Publishing, River Grove, IL, pp 829–832
Glover W, Chan HK (2004) Electrostatic charge characterization of pharmaceutical aerosols using electrical low-pressure impaction (ELPI). J Aerosol Sci 35(6):755–764
Crampton M, Kinnersley R, Ayres J (2004) Sub-micrometer particle production by pressurized metered dose inhalers. J Aerosol Med 17(1):33–42
Glover W, Chan HK (2004) Electrostatic charge characterization of pharmaceutical aerosols. In: Dalby RN, Byron PR, Peart J, Suman JD, Farr SJ (eds) Respiratory drug delivery-IX. Davis Healthcare International Publishing, River Grove, IL, pp 825–826
Kwok P, Chan HK (2004) Measurement of electrostatic charge of nebulised aqueous droplets with the electrical low pressure impactor. In: Dalby RN, Byron PR, Peart J, Suman JD, Farr SJ (eds) Respiratory drug delivery-IX. Davis Healthcare International Publishing, River Grove, IL, pp 833–836
Peart P, Magyar C, Byron PR (1998) Aerosol electrostatics—metered dose inhalers (MDIs): reformulation and device design issues. In: Dalby RN, Byron PR, Farr SJ (eds) Respiratory drug delivery-VI. Interpharm Press, Buffalo Grove, IL, pp 227–233
Horton KD, Ball MHE, Mitchell JP (1992) The calibration of a California measurements PC-2 quartz crystal cascade impactor. J Aerosol Sci 23(5):505–524
Nasr MM, Ross DL, Miller N (1997) Effect of drug loading and plate coating on the particle size distribution of a commercial albuterol metered dose inhaler (MDI) determined using the Andersen and Marple–Miller cascade impactor. Pharm Res 14(10):1437–1443
Mitchell J (2003) Practices of coating collection surfaces of cascade impactors: a survey of members of EPAG, 14th edn, Drug delivery to the lungs-14. The Aerosol Society, London, pp 75–78
Byron PR (1994) Compendial dry powder testing: USP perspectives. In: Byron PR, Dalby RN, Farr SJ (eds) Respiratory drug delivery-IV. Interpharm Press, Buffalo Grove, IL, pp 153–162
Dunbar CA, Hickey AJ, Holzner P (1998) Dispersion and characterization of pharmaceutical dry powder aerosols. KONA Powder Part 16:7–45
Kamiya A, Sakagami M, Hindle M, Byron PR (2004) Locating particle bounce in the next generation impactor (NGI). In: Dalby RN, Byron PR, Peart J, Suman JD, Farr SJ (eds) Respiratory drug delivery-IX. Davis Healthcare International Publishing, River Grove, IL, pp 869–871
Berg E, Svensson JO, Asking L (2007) Determination of nebulizer droplet size distribution: a method based on impactor refrigeration. J Aerosol Med 20(2):97–104
Kamiya A, Sakagami M, Hindle M, Byron PR (2004) Aerodynamic sizing of metered dose inhalers: an evaluation of the Andersen and next generation pharmaceutical impactors and their USP methods. J Pharm Sci 93(7):1828–1837
Nasr MM, Allgire JF (1995) Loading effect on particle size measurements by inertial sampling of albuterol metered dose inhalers. Pharm Res 12(11):1677–1681
Feddah MR, Davies NM (2003) Influence of single versus multiple actuations on the particle size distribution of beclomethasone dipropionate metered-dose inhalers. J Pharm Pharmacol 55(8):1055–1061
Merrin C, Lee S, Needham M, Chambers F (2003) Evaluation of NGI performance with high dose pMDIs, 14th edn, Drug delivery to the lungs-14. The Aerosol Society, London, pp 184–187
Copley M (2007) Understanding cascade impaction and its importance for inhaler testing. Copley Scientific Ltd Technical Briefing, Available at: http://www.copleyscientific.co.uk/documents/ww/Understanding%20Cascade%20Impaction%20White%20Paper.pdf. Visited 10 Jan 2012
MSP Corporation (2007) NGI User’s Guide. NGI-0170-6001, Revision C. Available at: http://www.epag.co.uk/Download2.asp?DID=902. Visited 10 Jan 2012
Mitchell JP (2006) Cleaning: a survey of members of the European Pharmaceutical Aerosol Group (EPAG), 17th edn, Drug delivery to the lungs-XVII. The Aerosol Society, Edinburgh, pp 197–199
Mitchell JP, Costa PA, Waters S (1987) An assessment of an Andersen Mark-II cascade impactor. J Aerosol Sci 19(2):213–221
European Directorate for Quality of Medicines and Healthcare (EDQM) (2012) Preparations for nebulisation. Section 2.9.44—European Pharmacopeia, Council of Europe, 67075 Strasbourg, France
Dolovich M, Rhem R (1998) Impact of oropharyngeal deposition on inhaled dose. J Aerosol Med S1:S112–S121
Harris D, Chaudhry S, Chaudry I, Li S, Sequeira J, Wyka B (1996) Influence of entry-port design on drug deposition in cascade-impactor from metered-dose inhalers. AAPS Annual Meeting. AAPS Poster Session, 1996
Van Oort M, Downey B (1996) Cascade impaction of MDIs and DPIs: proposal of induction port, inlet cone, and pre-separator lid designs for inclusion in general chapter <601> Pharm Forum 22(2):2204–2210
US Pharmacopeial Convention (2010) Chapter 1601: Products for nebulization—characterization tests. In Process Revision, Pharm Forum 36(2):534–538
Keil JC, Reshima K, Peart J (2006) Using and interpreting aerosol electrostatic data from the electrical low pressure impactor. In: Dalby RN, Byron PR, Peart J, Suman JD, Farr SJ (eds) Respiratory drug delivery-2006. Davis Healthcare International Publishing, River Grove, IL, pp 267–277
Peart J, Orban JC, McGlynn P, Redmon M, Sargeant CM, Byron PR (2002) MDI electrostatics: valve and formulation interactions which really make a difference. In: Dalby RN, Byron PR, Peart J, Farr SJ (eds) Respiratory drug delivery-VIII. Davis Healthcare International Publishing, River Grove, IL, pp 223–230
Bagger-Jörgensen H, Sandell D, Lundbäck H, Sundahl M (2005) Effect of inherent variability of inhalation products on impactor mass balance limits. J Aerosol Med 18(4):367–378
Product Quality Research Institute (2012) Information about PQRI as well as reports of WG meetings can be found at: http://www.pqri.org/. Visited 10 Jan 2012
Mitchell JP, Bauer R, Lyapustina S, Tougas T, Glaab V (2011) Non-impactor-based methods for sizing of aerosols emitted from orally inhaled and nasal drug products (OINDPs). AAPS PharmSciTech 12(3):965–988
Mitchell JP, Dunbar C (2005) Analysis of cascade impactor mass distributions. J Aerosol Med 18(4):439–451
Christopher JD, Dey M, Lyapustina S, Mitchell JP, Tougas TP, Van Oort M, Strickland H, Wyka B (2010) Generalized simplified approaches for mass median aerodynamic determination. Pharm Forum 36(3):812–823
Mitchell JP, Nagel MW (2000) Spacer and holding chamber testing in vitro: a critical analysis with examples. In: Dalby RN, Byron PR, Farr SJ, Peart J (eds) Respiratory drug delivery-VII. Serentec Press, Raleigh, NC, pp 265–274
Lefebvre AH (1989) Atomization and sprays. Taylor and Francis, Hemisphere Publishing Corporation, New York, NY
Lewis DA (2008) New cascade impactor software. Inhalation 2(4):7–10
Hinds WC (1998) Properties, behavior, and measurement of airborne particles, 2nd edn. Wiley-Interscience, New York, NY, pp 75–110
Author information
Authors and Affiliations
Corresponding author
Editor information
Editors and Affiliations
Rights and permissions
Copyright information
© 2013 Springer Science+Business Media New York
About this chapter
Cite this chapter
Mitchell, J.P. (2013). Good Cascade Impactor Practices. In: Tougas, T., Mitchell, J., Lyapustina, S. (eds) Good Cascade Impactor Practices, AIM and EDA for Orally Inhaled Products. Springer, Boston, MA. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-1-4614-6296-5_4
Download citation
DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/978-1-4614-6296-5_4
Published:
Publisher Name: Springer, Boston, MA
Print ISBN: 978-1-4614-6295-8
Online ISBN: 978-1-4614-6296-5
eBook Packages: Biomedical and Life SciencesBiomedical and Life Sciences (R0)