Abstract
The Soviet annexation of the Baltic republics and portions of Poland, Finland and Romania in 1940 helped place the USSR — quite literally — in Eastern Europe. The two great symbols of the Soviet Union’s westward expansion towards the European heartland were recounted in August 1940 by the Soviet Foreign Minister, Viacheslav Molotov. First, Molotov noted that the westward shift of the Soviet borders to the Baltic was ‘of first-rate importance for our country’, ensuring Soviet access to ice-free ports on the Baltic. Second, regarding the former Romanian territory of Bessarabia, Molotov observed that: ‘the frontiers of the Soviet Union have shifted west and now reach the Danube which, next to the Volga, is the biggest river in Europe and one of the most important commercial routes for a number of European countries’.1
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Notes
Quoted in Bohdan Nahaylo and Victor Swoboda, Soviet Disunion: A History of the Nationalities Problem in the USSR (London: Hamish Hamilton, 1990) p. 86.
See, for example, Robert R. King, Minorities under Communism: Nationalities as a Source of Tension among Balkan Communist States (Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 1973).
Although they display a pro-Romanian bias, the authoritative histories of Romania’s two chief irredenti through to 1918 are Ion Nistor’s Istoria Basarabiei (Bucharest: Humanitas, 1991) and Istoria Bucovinei (Bucharest: Humanitas, 1991).
The Soviet counterpart is A. Lazarev’s Moldavskaia sovetskaia gosudarstvennost’ i bessarabskii vopros (Chişinǎu: Cartea Moldoveneascǎ, 1974).
See also: M. Manoliu-Manea (ed.), The Tragic Plight of a Border Area: Bessarabia and Bukovina (Los Angeles, CA: American Romanian Academy of Arts & Sciences, 1983);
George F. Jewsbury, The Russian Annexation of Bessarabia: 1774–1828 (Boulder: East European Monographs, 1976);
Ion G. Pelivan, The Right of the Roumanians to Bessarabia (Paris: n.p., 1920); Nicholas Dima, From Moldavia to Moldova: The Soviet– Romanian Territorial Dispute (Boulder: East European Monographs, 1991);
George Cioranesco et al., Aspects des relations russo-roumaines: Rétrospectives et orientations (Paris: Minard, 1967);
and Charles Upson Clark, Bessarabia (New York: Dodd, Mead, 1927).
Paul Goma, Din calidor (Bucharest: Albatros, 1990).
Quoted in Ion Antonescu, Románii: Originea, trecutul, sacrificile şi drepturile lor (Iaşi: Moldova, 1991) p. iii.
Sabin Manuila, Studiu etnografic asupra populaţiei României (Bucharest: Editura Institutului Central de Statisticâ, 1940) pp. 34–6.
Buzatu, România cu şi fǎrǎ Antonescu (Iaşi: Moldova, 1991) p. 22.
‘Unul din momentele istoriei’, Moldova Suveranǎ, 9 Oct. 1990, p. 3. The Karelo–Finnish SSR (in existence from 1940 to 1956) served a similar purpose with respect to Finland. The half-hearted attempts at ‘karelianization’ provide an instructive comparison to ‘moldovanization’. See Paul M. Austin, ‘Soviet Karelian: The Language that Failed’, Slavic Review, 51 (1992), 1, pp. 16–35.
See Joseph F. Harrington and Bruce J. Courtney, Tweaking the Nose of the Russians: Fifty Years of American-Romanian Relations, 1940–1990 (Boulder: East European Monographs, 1991) pp. 9–11.
Ewa M. Thompson, ‘Nationalist Propaganda in the Soviet Russian Press, 1939–1941’, Slavic Review, 50 (1991) 2, p. 398; Sovetskaia Bessarabiia (1940) p. 10.
S.K. Brysiakin, Kul’tura Bessarabii, 1918–1940 (Chişinǎu: Ştiinţa, 1978) p. 204.
D.I. Antoniuk et al., Predatel’ skaia rol’ ‘Sfatul Tserii’ (Chişinǎu: Cartea Moldoveneascǎ, 1969) p. 3; See also: Brysiakin, Kul’tura Bessarabii, pp. 205, 207;
and P.K. Luchinskii, ‘Dmitrii Kantemir — obshchestvennopoliticheskoi deiatel’, uchenyi, patriot’, Voprosy istorii, 10 (1973) pp. 34–46.
N. V. Berezniakov et al., Lupta oamenilor muncii din Basarabia pentru eliberarea şi reunirea ei cu P atria sovieticǎ (anii 1918–1940) (Chişinǎu: Cartea Moldoveneascǎ, 1973) p. 783.
I.K. Madan and I.I. Shpak, Moldavskaia literatura (Moscow: Kniga, 1972) p. 8.
A. A. Shevchenko, Detskaia literatura izdana v Sovetskoi Moldavii. Svodnyi ukazatel’1924–1974 (Chişinǎu: Lumina, 1976) pp. 12–13.
N. A. Mokhov, Ocherki istoriiformirovaniia moldavskogo naroda (Chişinǎu: Cartea Moldoveneascǎ, 1978) pp. 5–10, 117.
See also E.M. Zagorodnaia and V.S. Zelenchuk, Naselenie Moldavskoi SSR (sotsial’no-demograficheskii protsessy) (Chişjnǎu: Cartea Moldoveneascǎ, 1987);
and N.V. Babilunga, Naselenie Moldavii v proshlom veke: Migratsiia? assimiliatsiia? rusifikatsiia? (Chişinǎu: Ştiinţa, 1990).
L. Madan, Gramaticǎ moldoveneascǎ (Tiraspol, 1929), quoted in Michael Bruchis, One Step Back, Two Steps Forward: On the Language Policy of the Communist Party of the Soviet Union in the National Republics (Moldavian: A Look Back, A Survey, and Perspectives, 1924–1980) (Boulder: East European Monographs, 1982) p. 54.
K.M. Musaev, Razvitie terminologii na iazykakh soiuznykh respublik SSSR (Moscow: Nauka, 1987) p. 122. See also Bruchis, One Step, p. 74.
Nicolae Titulescu, Basarabia pǎmînt românesc (Bucharest: Rum-Irina, 1992) p. 82.
See Michael Kirkwood (ed.), Language Planning in the Soviet Union (London: Macmillan, 1989)
and T.P. Lomtev, ‘I.V. Stalin o razvitii natsional’nykh iazykov v epokhu sotsializma’, Voprosy fllosofii, 1 (1949) pp. 131–41.
Jeffrey Ellis and Robert W. Davies, ‘The Crisis in Soviet Linguistics’, Soviet Studies, 2(1951)3, p. 217.
See Joseph Stalin, ‘Marxism and Linguistics’ in Bruce Franklin (ed.), The Essential Stalin: Major Theoretical Writings, 1905–1952 (London: Croom Helm, 1973) pp. 407–44.
V.F. Shishmarev, ‘Romanskie iazyki iugo-vostochnoi Evropy i natsional’nyi iazyk moldavskoi SSR’, Voprosy iazykoznaniia, 1 (1952) pp. 80–106.
N.G. Corlǎteanu, ‘Moldavskii iazyk’, in Iazyki narodov SSSR (Moscow: Nauka, 1966) vol. 1, p. 560.
P. Rogachev and M. Sverdlin, ‘Sovetskii narod — novaia istoricheskaia obshchnost’ liudei’, Kommunist, 9 (1963) pp. 18–20.
On Comecon’s plans for Romania, see Adrian Pop’s contribution to this volume and Michael Kaser, COMECON: Integration Problems of the Planned Economies (London: Oxford University Press, 1967).
See Part 5 of Michael Shafir, Romania: Politics, Economics and Society (London: Francis Pinter, 1985).
Linguists usually singled out the reference in Moldovan for non-prepositional syntactical structures based on Russian. For example, Moldovans tended to use the form ‘substantive-genitive’ rather than the standard Romanian ‘substantive-preposition-substantive’; hence the Moldovan метода кондучерий/ metoda conducerii (method of leadership) based on the Russian metoda rukovodstva, instead of the Romanian metodǎ de conducere. Kenneth H. Rogers, ‘Moldavian, Romanian, and the Question of a National Language’, in Maria Manoliu-Manea (ed.), The Tragic Plight of a Border Area: Bassarabia and Bukovina (Los Angeles CA: American Romanian Academy of Arts and Sciences, 1983) p. 169.
The publication of A.M. Lazarev’s 910–page history text Moldavskaia sovetskaia gosudarstvennost’ i bessarabskii vopros in 1974 marked a major increase in Soviet-Romanian conflict over Bessarabia, a conflict played out in the historiography of both countries. See Jack Gold, ‘Bessarabia: The Thorny “Non-Existence Problem”’, East European Quarterly, 13 (1974) 1, pp. 47–74, for a review of Lazarev’s work.
See Werner Sollors (ed.), The Invention of Ethnicity (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1989).
Terry Eagleton, Ideology: An Introduction (London: Verso, 1991) p. 19.
Dima, From Moldavia to Moldova, pp. 3–4. See also: Dima, ‘Moldavians or Romanians?’ in Ralph S. Clem (ed.), The Soviet West: Interplay between Nationality and Social Organization (New York: Praeger, 1975) pp. 31–45;
Dennis Deletant, ‘Language Policy and Linguistic Trends in Soviet Moldavia’ in Michael Kirkwood (ed.), Language Planning in the Soviet Union (London: Macmillan, 1989) pp. 189–216; Bruchis, One Step;
Michael Bruchis, ‘The Language Policy of the CPSU and the Linguistic Situation in Soviet Moldavia’, Soviet Studies, 36 (1984) 1, pp. 108–26;
Michael Burchis, Nations-Nationalities-People: A Study of the Nationalities Policy of the Communist Party in Soviet Moldavia (Boulder: East European Monographs, 1984); and Manoliu-Manea, Tragic Plight.
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King, C.E. (1994). Soviet Policy in the Annexed East European Borderlands: Language, Politics and Ethnicity in Moldova. In: Westad, O.A., Holtsmark, S., Neumann, I.B. (eds) The Soviet Union in Eastern Europe, 1945–89. Palgrave Macmillan, London. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-1-349-23234-5_5
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