Abstract
Sterols are indispensable for a multitude of physiological processes in all eukaryotic organisms. In most eukaryotes, sterols are synthesized de novo from low molecular weight precursors. Some invertebrates (e.g., all arthropods examined to date), however, are incapable of synthesizing sterols de novo, and therefore have to acquire sterols from their diet. Here, we aim to demonstrate that such nutritional requirements not only affect the performance of an individual in its environment but may also have major consequences for the function of aquatic ecosystems. Starting from general patterns of occurrence and biosynthesis of sterols, we next explore the physiological properties and nutritional requirements of sterols. These aspects are then integrated into a more ecological perspective. We emphasize their effects on aquatic food webs in general and on herbivorous zooplankton in particular with the major aim to outline how the interplay of physiological capabilities of individual herbivores and trophic interactions in the food web will determine the effect of low dietary provision of sterols on structure and function of aquatic ecosystems.
Access this chapter
Tax calculation will be finalised at checkout
Purchases are for personal use only
References
Ballantine, J.A., Lavis, A., and Morris, R.J. 1979. Sterols of the phytoplankton – effects of illumination and growth stage. Phytochemistry 18:1459–1466.
Barrett, S.M., Volkman, J.K., Dunstan, G.A., and Leroi, J.M. 1995. Sterols of 14 species of marine diatoms (bacillariophyta). J. Phycol. 31:360–369.
Bec, A., Martin-Creuzburg, D., and Von Elert, E. 2006. Trophic upgrading of autotrophic picoplankton by the heterotrophic nanoflagellate Paraphysomonas sp. Limnol. Oceanogr. 51:1699–1707.
Behmer, S.T., and Elias, D.O. 1999. The nutritional significance of sterol metabolic constraints in the generalist grasshopper Schistocerca americana. J. Insect Physiol. 45:339–348.
Behmer, S.T., and Elias, D.O. 2000. Sterol metabolic constraints as a factor contributing to the maintenance of diet mixing in grasshoppers (Orthoptera:Acrididae). Physiol. Biochem. Zool. 73:219–230.
Behmer, S.T., and Nes, W.D. 2003. Insect sterol nutrition and physiology: a global overview. Adv. Insect Physiol. 31:1–72.
Behmer, S.T., Elias, D.O., and Bernays, E.A. 1999a. Post-ingestive feedbacks and associative learning regulate the intake of unsuitable sterols in a generalist grasshopper. J. Exp. Biol. 202:739–748.
Behmer, S.T., Elias, D.O., and Grebenok, R.J. 1999b. Phytosterol metabolism and absorption in the generalist grasshopper, Schistocerca americana (Orthoptera: Acrididae). Arch. Insect Biochem. Physiol. 42:13–25.
Boëchat, I.G., and Adrian, R. 2006. Evidence for biochemical limitation of population growth and reproduction of the rotifer Keratella quadrata fed with freshwater protists. J. Plankton Res. 28:1027–1038.
Boëchat, I.G., Krüger, A., and Adrian, R. 2007. Sterol composition of freshwater algivorous ciliates does not resemble dietary composition. Microb. Ecol. 53:74–81.
Champagne, D.E., and Bernays, E.A. 1991. Phytosterol unsuitability as a factor mediating food aversion learning in the grasshopper Schistocerca americana. Physiol. Entomol. 16:391–400.
Conklin, D.E., and Provasoli, L. 1977. Nutritional requirements of the water flea Moina macrocopa. Biol. Bull. 152:337–350.
Conner, R.L., Landrey, J.R., Burns, C.H., and Mallory, F.B. 1968. Cholesterol inhibition of pentacyclic triterpenoid biosynthesis in Tetrahymena pyriformis. J. Protozool. 15:600–605.
Crockett, E.L., and Hassett, R.P. 2005. A cholesterol-enriched diet enhances egg production and egg viability without altering cholesterol content of biological membranes in the copepod Acartia hudsonica. Physiol. Biochem. Zool. 78:424–433.
Dahl, C.E., Dahl, J.S., and Bloch, K. 1980. Effect of alkyl-substituted precursors of cholesterol on artificial and natural membranes and on the viability of Mycoplasma capricolum. Biochemistry 19:1462–1467.
Dembitsky, V.M., Rezanka, T., and Srebnik, M. 2003. Lipid compounds of freshwater sponges: family Spongillidae, class Demospongiae. Chem. Phys. Lipids 123:117–155.
Ederington, M., McManus, G.B., and Harvey, H.R. 1995. Trophic transfer of fatty acids, sterols, and a triterpenoid alcohol between bacteria, a ciliate, and the copepod Acartia tonsa. Limnol. Oceanogr. 40:860–867.
Frolov, A.V., Pankov, S.L., Geradz, K.N., Pankova, S.A., and Spektrova, L.V. 1991. Influence of the biochemical composition of food on the biochemical composition of the rotifer Brachionus plicatilis. Aquaculture 97:181–202.
Gessner, M.O., and Chauvet, E. 1993. Ergosterol-to-biomass conversion factors for aquatic hyphomycetes. Appl. Environ. Microb. 59:502–507.
Gilbert, L.I., Rybczynski, R., and Warren, J.T. 2002. Control and biochemical nature of the ecdysteroidogenic pathway. Annu. Rev. Entomol. 47:883–916.
Giner, J.-L., Faraldos, J.A., and Boyer, G.L. 2003. Novel sterols of the toxic dinoflagellate Karenia brevis (Dinophyceae): a defensive function for unusual marine sterols? J. Phycol. 39:315–319.
Goad, L.J. 1981. Sterol biosynthesis and metabolism in marine invertebrates. Pure Appl. Chem. 51:837–852.
Grieneisen, M.L. 1994. Recent advances in our knowledge of ecdysteroid biosynthesis in insects and crustaceans. Insect Biochem. Mol. Biol. 24:115–132.
Guisande, C., Riverio, I., and Maneiro, I. 2000. Comparisons among the amino acid composition of females, eggs and food to determine the relative importance of the food quantity and food quality to copepod reproduction. Mar. Ecol. Prog. Ser. 202:135–142.
Haines, T.H. 2001. Do sterols reduce proton and sodium leaks through lipid bilayers? Prog. Lipid Res. 40:299–324.
Harvey, H.R., and McManus, G.B. 1991. Marine ciliates as a widespread source of tetrahymanol and hopan-3β-ol in sediments. Geochim. Cosmochim. Acta 55:3387–3390.
Harvey, H.R., Eglinton, G., O’Hara, S.C.M., and Corner, E.D.S. 1987. Biotransformation and assimilation of dietary lipids by Calanus feeding on a dinoflagellate. Geochim. Cosmochim. Acta 51:3031–3040.
Harvey, H.R., O’Hara, S.C.M., Eglinton, G., and Corner, E.D.S. 1989. The comparative fate of dinosterol and cholesterol in copepod feeding: implications for a conservative molecular biomarker in the marine water column. Org. Geochem. 14:635–641.
Harvey, H.R., Ederington, M.C., and McManus, G.B. 1997. Lipid composition of the marine ciliates Pleuronema sp. and Fabrea salina: shifts in response to changes in diets. J. Eukaryot. Microbiol. 44:189–193.
Hassett, R.P. 2004. Supplementation of a diatom diet with cholesterol can enhance copepod egg-production rates. Limnol. Oceanogr. 49:488–494.
Kanazawa, A. 2001. Sterols in marine invertebrates. Fish. Sci. 67:997–1007.
Klein Breteler, W.C.M., Schogt, N., Baas, M., Schouten, S., and Kraay, G.W. 1999. Trophic upgrading of food quality by protozoans enhancing copepod growth: the role of essential lipids. Mar. Biol. 135:191–198.
Klein Breteler, W.C.M., Koski, M., and Rampen, S. 2004. Role of essential lipids in copepod nutrition: no evidence for trophic upgrading of food quality by a marine ciliate. Mar. Ecol. Prog. Ser. 274:199–208.
Klein Breteler, W.C.M., Schogt, N., and Rampen, S. 2005. Effect of diatom nutrient limitation on copepod development: role of essential lipids. Mar. Ecol. Prog. Ser. 291:125–133.
Lampert, W., and Trubetskova, I. 1996. Juvenile growth rate as a measure of fitness in Daphnia. Funct. Ecol. 10:631–635.
Leblond, J.D., and Chapman, P.J. 2002. A survey of the sterol composition of the marine dinoflagellates Karenia brevis, Karenia mikimotoi, and Karlodinium micrum: distribution of sterols within other members of the class dinophyceae. J. Phycol. 38:670–682.
Leppimäki, P, Mattinen, J., and Slotte, P. 2000. Sterol-induced upregulation of phosphatidylcholine synthesis in cultured fibroblasts is affected by the double-bond position in the sterol tetracyclic ring structure. Eur. J. Biochem. 267:6385–6394.
Lozano, R., Salt, T.A., Chitwood, D.J., Lusby, W.R., and Thompson, M.J. 1987. Metabolism of sterols of varying ring unsaturation and methylation by Caenorhabditis elegans. Lipids 22:84–87.
Lynch, M., Weider, L.J., and Lampert, W. 1986. Measurement of the carbon balance in Daphnia. Limnol. Oceanogr. 31:17–33.
MacLatchy, D.L., and Van der Kraak, G. 1995. The phytoestrogen β-sitosterol alters the reproductive endocrine status of goldfish. Toxicol. Appl. Pharmacol. 134:305–312.
Martin-Creuzburg, D., and Von Elert, E. 2004. Impact of 10 dietary sterols on growth and reproduction of Daphnia galeata. J. Chem. Ecol. 30:483–500.
Martin-Creuzburg, D., Wacker, A., and Von Elert, E. 2005a. Life history consequences of sterol availability in the aquatic keystone species Daphnia. Oecologia 144:362–372.
Martin-Creuzburg, D., Bec, A., and Von Elert, E. 2005b. Trophic upgrading of picocyanobacterial carbon by ciliates for nutrition of Daphnia magna. Aquat. Microb. Ecol. 41:271–280.
Martin-Creuzburg, D., Bec, A., and Von Elert, E. 2006. Supplementation with sterols improves food quality of a ciliate for Daphnia magna. Protist 157:477–486.
Martin-Creuzburg, D., Westerlund, S.A., and Hoffmann, K.H. 2007. Ecdysteroid levels in Daphnia magna during a molt cycle: determination by radioimmunoassay (RIA) and liquid chromatography-mass spectrometry (LC-MS). Gen. Comp. Endocrinol. 151:66–71.
Merris, M., Kraeft, J., Tint, G.S., and Lenard, J. 2004. Long-term effects of sterol depletion in C. elegans: sterol content of synchronized wild-type and mutant populations. J. Lipid Res. 45:2044–2051.
Moreau, R.A., Whitaker, B.D., and Hicks, K.B. 2002. Phytosterols, phytostanols, and their conjugates in foods: structural diversity, quantitative analysis, and health-promoting uses. Prog. Lipid Res. 41:457–500.
Müller-Navarra, D.C., Brett, M., Liston, A.M., and Goldman, C.R. 2000. A highly unsaturated fatty acid predicts carbon transfer between primary producers and consumers. Nature 403:74–77.
Nes, W.R., and McKean, M.L. 1977. Biochemistry of steroids and other isopentenoids. University Park Press, Baltimore, MD.
Normén, L., Shaw, C.A., Fink, C.S., and Awad, A.B. 2004. Combination of phytosterols and omega-3 fatty acids: A potential strategy to promote cardiovascular health. Curr. Med. Chem. Cardiovasc. Hematol. Agents 2:1–12.
Ohvo-Rekilä, H., Ramstedt, B., Leppimäki, P., and Slotte, P. 2002. Cholesterol interactions with phospholipids in membranes. Prog. Lipid Res. 41:66–97.
Oliver, R.L., and Ganf, G.G. 2000. Freshwater blooms, pp. 149–194. In B.A. Whitton (ed.), The ecology of cyanobacteria: their diversity in time and space. Kluwer, Dordrecht.
Ourisson, G., Rohmer, M., and Poralla, K. 1987. Prokaryotic hopanoids and other polyterpenoid sterol surrogates. Ann. Rev. Microbiol. 41:301–333.
Patterson, G.W. 1991. Sterols of algae, pp. 118–157. In G.W. Patterson, and W.D. Nes (eds.), Physiology and biochemistry of sterols. American Oil Chemists’ Society, Champaign, IL.
Patterson, G.W., Tsitsa-Tzardis, E., Wikfors, G.H., Ghosh, P., Smith, B. C., and Gladu, P.K. 1994. Sterols of eustigmatophytes. Lipids 29:661–664.
Piironen, V., Lindsay, D., Miettinen, T., Toivo, J., and Lampi, A.M. 2000. Plant sterols: biosynthesis, biological function and their importance to human nutrition. J. Sci. Food Agric. 80:939–966.
Popov, S., Stoilov, I., Marekov, N., Kovachev, G., and Andreev, S. 1981. Sterols and their biosynthesis in some freshwater bivalves. Lipids 16:663–669.
Porter, J.A., Young, K.E., and Beachy, P.A. 1996. Cholesterol modification of hedgehog signaling proteins in animal development. Science 274:255–259.
Prahl, F.G., Eglinton, G., Corner, E.D.S., O’Hara, S.C.M., and Forsberg, T.E.V. 1984. Changes in plant lipids during passage through the gut of Calanus. J. Mar. Biol. Ass. U. K. 64:317–334.
Raederstorff, D., and Rohmer, M. 1987. Sterol biosynthesis via cycloartenol and other biochemical features related to photosynthetic phyla in the amoebae Naegleria lovaniensis and Naegleria gruberi. Eur. J. Biochem. 164:427–434.
Raederstorff, D., and Rohmer, M. 1988. Polyterpenoids as cholesterol and tetrahymanol surrogates in the ciliate Tetrahymena pyriformis. Biochim. Biophys. Acta 960:190–199.
Rohmer, M., Knani, M., Simonin, P., Sutter, B., and Sahm, H. 1993. Isoprenoid biosynthesis in bacteria: a novel pathway for the early steps leading to isopentenyl diphosphate. Biochem. J. 295:517–524.
Schaller, H. 2003. The role of sterols in plant growth and development. Prog. Lipid Res. 42:163–175.
Shim, Y.-H., Chun, J.H., Lee, E.-Y., and Paik, Y.-K. 2002. Role of cholesterol in germ-line development of Caenorhabditis elegans. Mol. Reprod. Dev. 61:358–366.
Silva, C.J., Wünsche, L., and Djierassi, C. 1991. Biosynthetic studies of marine lipids 35. The demonstration of de novo sterol biosynthesis in sponges using radiolabeled isoprenoid precursors. Comp. Biochem. Physiol. 99B:763–773.
Soudant, P., Le Coz, J.-R., Marty, Y., Moal, J., Robert, R., and Samain, J.-F. 1998. Incorporation of microalgae sterols by scallop Pecten maximus (L.) larvae. Comp. Biochem. Physiol. A. 119:451–457.
Stoecker, D.K., and Capuzzo, J.M. 1990. Predation on Protozoa: its importance to zooplankton. J. Plankton Res. 12:891–908.
Summons, R.E., Bradley, A.S., Jahnke, L.L., and Waldbauer, J.R. 2006. Steroids, triterpenoids and molecular oxygen. Phil. Trans. R. Soc. B 361:951–968.
Svoboda, J.A., and Thompson, M.J. 1985. Steroids, pp. 137–175. In G.A. Kerkut, and L.I. Gilbert (eds.). Comprehensive insect physiology, biochemistry and pharmacology. Pergamon, New York.
Teshima, S.-I. 1971. Bioconversion of β-sitosterol and 24-methylcholesterol to cholesterol in marine crustacea. Comp. Biochem. Physiol. 39B:815–822.
Teshima, S.-I. 1991. Sterols of crustaceans, molluscs and fish, pp. 229–256. In G.W. Patterson, and W.D. Nes (eds.), Physiology and biochemistry of sterols. American Oil Chemists’ Society, Champaign, IL.
Thompson Jr., G.A. 1996. Lipids and membrane function in green algae. Biochim. Biophys. Acta 1302:17–45.
Trautwein, E.A., Duchateau, G.S.M.J.E., Lin, Y., Mel’nikov, S., Molhuizen, H.O.F., and Ntanios, F.Y. 2003. Proposed mechanisms of cholesterol-lowering action of plant sterols. Eur. J. Lipid Sci. Technol. 105:171–185.
Trider, D.J., and Castell, J.D. 1980. Effect of dietary lipids on growth tissue composition and metabolism of the oyster (Crassostrea virginica). J. Nutr. 110:1303–1309.
Tsitsa-Tzardis, S.E., Patterson, G.W., Wikfors, G.H., Gladu, P.K., and Harrison, D. 1993. Sterols of Chaetoceros and Skeletonema. Lipids 28:465–467.
VanWagtendonk, W.J. 1974. Nutrition of Paramecium, pp. 339–376. In W.J. VanWagtendonk (ed.), Paramecium, a current survey. Elsevier, Amsterdam.
Véron, B., Dauguet, J.-C., and Billard, C. 1998. Sterolic biomarkers in marine phytoplankton. II. Free and conjugated sterols of seven species used in mariculture. J. Phycol. 34:273–279.
Volkman, J.K. 2003. Sterols in microorganisms. Appl. Microbiol. Biotech. 60:495–506.
Volkman, J.K. 2005. Sterols and other triterpenoids: source specificity and evolution of biosynthetic pathways. Org. Geochem. 36:139–159.
Volkman, J.K., Barrett, S.M., Blackburn, S.I., Mansour, M.P., Sikes, E.L., and Gelin, F. 1998. Microalgal biomarkers: a review of recent research developments. Org. Geochem. 29:1163–1179.
Von Elert, E. 2002. Determination of limiting polyunsaturated fatty acids in Daphnia galeata using a new method to enrich food algae with single fatty acids. Limnol. Oceanogr. 47:1764–1773.
Von Elert, E., Martin-Creuzburg, D., and Le Coz, J.R. 2003. Absence of sterols constrains carbon transfer between cyanobacteria and a freshwater herbivore (Daphnia galeata). Proc. R. Soc. Lond. B Bio. 270:1209–1214.
Voogt, P.A. 1975. Investigations of the capacity of synthesizing 3β-sterols in Mollusca-XIII. Biosynthesis and composition of sterols in some bivalves (Anisomyaria). Comp. Biochem. Physiol. 50B:499–504.
Wacker, A., and Martin-Creuzburg, D. 2007. Allocation of essential lipids in Daphnia magna during exposure to poor food quality. Funct. Ecol. 21:738–747.
Williams, B.L., Goodwin, T.W., and Ryley, J.F. 1966. The sterols of some protozoa. J. Protozool. 13:227–230.
Wright, D.C., Berg, L.R., and Patterson, G.W. 1980. Effect of culture conditions on the sterols and fatty acids of green algae. Phytochemistry 19:783–785.
Author information
Authors and Affiliations
Corresponding author
Editor information
Editors and Affiliations
Rights and permissions
Copyright information
© 2009 Springer Science+Business Media, LLC
About this chapter
Cite this chapter
Martin-Creuzburg, D., Elert, E.v. (2009). Ecological significance of sterols in aquatic food webs. In: Kainz, M., Brett, M., Arts, M. (eds) Lipids in Aquatic Ecosystems. Springer, New York, NY. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-0-387-89366-2_3
Download citation
DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/978-0-387-89366-2_3
Published:
Publisher Name: Springer, New York, NY
Print ISBN: 978-0-387-88607-7
Online ISBN: 978-0-387-89366-2
eBook Packages: Biomedical and Life SciencesBiomedical and Life Sciences (R0)