Skip to main content
SpringerLink
Log in

Epidemiology of Obesity

  • Reference work entry
Handbook of Epidemiology

Abstract

Obesity results from an imbalance between energy intake and energy expenditure. Factors that influence energy intake include the quantity and quality of foods and beverages consumed, while physical activity levels influence energy expenditure. Energy balance is further influenced by genetic, metabolic, and environmental factors.

This is a preview of subscription content, log in via an institution to check access.

Access this chapter

Log in via an institution
Chapter
USD 29.95
Price excludes VAT (USA)
  • Available as PDF
  • Read on any device
  • Instant download
  • Own it forever
eBook
USD 999.99
Price excludes VAT (USA)
  • Available as EPUB and PDF
  • Read on any device
  • Instant download
  • Own it forever
Hardcover Book
USD 1,399.99
Price excludes VAT (USA)
  • Durable hardcover edition
  • Dispatched in 3 to 5 business days
  • Free shipping worldwide - see info

Tax calculation will be finalised at checkout

Purchases are for personal use only

Institutional subscriptions

References

  • Abraham S, Luscombe G, Boyd C, Olesen I (2004) Predictors of the accuracy of self-reported height and weight in adolescent female school students. Int J Eat Disord 36:76–82

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Akinbami LJ, Ogden CL (2009) Childhood overweight prevalence in the United States: the impact of parent-reported height and weight. Obesity (Silver Spring) 17:1574–1580

    Google Scholar 

  • American Diabetes Association (2010) Summary of revisions for the 2010 Clinical Practice Recommendations. Diabetes Care 33(Suppl 1):S3

    Google Scholar 

  • Anderson DE (2007) Reliability of air displacement plethysmography. J Strength Cond Res 21:169–172

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Anis AH, Zhang W, Bansback N, Guh DP, Amarsi Z, Birmingham CL (2010) Obesity and overweight in Canada: an updated cost-of-illness study. Obes Rev 11:31–40

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Baird J, Fisher D, Lucas P, Kleijnen J, Roberts H, Law C (2005) Being big or growing fast: systematic review of size and growth in infancy and later obesity. BMJ 331:929

    PubMed Central  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Baker JL, Michaelsen KF, Rasmussen KM, Sorensen TI (2004) Maternal prepregnant body mass index, duration of breastfeeding, and timing of complementary food introduction are associated with infant weight gain. Am J Clin Nutr 80:1579–1588

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Balanza R, Garcia-Lorda P, Perez-Rodrigo C, Aranceta J, Bonet MB, Salas-Salvado J (2007) Trends in food availability determined by the Food and Agriculture Organization’s food balance sheets in Mediterranean Europe in comparison with other European areas. Public Health Nutr 10:168–176

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Ball K, Crawford D, Kenardy J (2004) Longitudinal relationships among overweight, life satisfaction, and aspirations in young women. Obes Res 12:1019–1030

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Barlow SE, Dietz WH (1998) Obesity evaluation and treatment: expert Committee recommendations. The Maternal and Child Health Bureau, Health Resources and Services Administration and the Department of Health and Human Services. Pediatrics 102:E29

    Google Scholar 

  • Bassett DR Jr, Pucher J, Buehler R, Thompson DL, Crouter SE (2008) Walking, cycling, and obesity rates in Europe, North America, and Australia. J Phys Act Health 5:795–814

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Baum CL 2nd, Ford WF (2004) The wage effects of obesity: a longitudinal study. Health Econ 13:885–899

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Bell AC, Garrard J, Swinburn BA (2006) Active transport to work in Australia: is it all downhill from here? Asia Pac J Public Health 18:62–68

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • BeLue R, Francis LA, Colaco B (2009) Mental health problems and overweight in a nationally representative sample of adolescents: effects of race and ethnicity. Pediatrics 123:697–702

    PubMed Central  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Benjamin RM (2010) The Surgeon General’s vision for a healthy and fit nation. Public Health Rep 125:514–515

    PubMed Central  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Berkey CS, Rockett HR, Field AE, Gillman MW, Colditz GA (2004) Sugar-added beverages and adolescent weight change. Obes Res 12:778–788

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Bernstein MS, Costanza MC, Morabia A (2004) Association of physical activity intensity levels with overweight and obesity in a population-based sample of adults. Prev Med 38:94–104

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Berrington de Gonzalez A, Hartge P, Cerhan JR, Flint AJ, Hannan L, MacInnis RJ, Moore SC, Tobias GS, Anton-Culver H, Freeman LB, Beeson WL, Clipp SL, English DR, Folsom AR, Freedman DM, Giles G, Hakansson N, Henderson KD, Hoffman-Bolton J, Hoppin JA, Koenig KL, Lee IM, Linet MS, Park Y, Pocobelli G, Schatzkin A, Sesso HD, Weiderpass E, Willcox BJ, Wolk A, Zeleniuch-Jacquotte A, Willett WC, Thun MJ (2010) Body-mass index and mortality among 1.46 million white adults. N Engl J Med 363:2211–2219

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Bes-Rastrollo M, Sabate J, Gomez-Gracia E, Alonso A, Martinez JA, Martinez-Gonzalez MA (2007) Nut consumption and weight gain in a Mediterranean cohort: the SUN study. Obesity (Silver Spring) 15:107–116

    Google Scholar 

  • Bes-Rastrollo M, Basterra-Gortari FJ, Sanchez-Villegas A, Marti A, Martinez JA, Martinez-Gonzalez MA (2009) A prospective study of eating away-from-home meals and weight gain in a Mediterranean population: the SUN (Seguimiento Universidad de Navarra) cohort. Public Health Nutr 13:1356–1363

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Besser LM, Dannenberg AL (2005) Walking to public transit: steps to help meet physical activity recommendations. Am J Prev Med 29:273–280

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Birch LL, Davison KK (2001) Family environmental factors influencing the developing behavioral controls of food intake and childhood overweight. Pediatr Clin North Am 48:893–907

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Birmingham CL, Muller JL, Palepu A, Spinelli JJ, Anis AH (1999) The cost of obesity in Canada. CMAJ 160:483–488

    PubMed Central  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Bostrom G, Diderichsen F (1997) Socioeconomic differentials in misclassification of height, weight and body mass index based on questionnaire data. Int J Epidemiol 26:860–866

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Boyes AD, Latner JD (2009) Weight stigma in existing romantic relationships. J Sex Marital Ther 35:282–293

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Bray GA, Greenway FL, Molitch ME, Dahms WT, Atkinson RL, Hamilton K (1978) Use of anthropometric measures to assess weight loss. Am J Clin Nutr 31:769–773

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Brenner DJ, Hall EJ (2007) Computed tomography–an increasing source of radiation exposure. N Engl J Med 357:2277–2284

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Briefel RR, Johnson CL (2004) Secular trends in dietary intake in the United States. Annu Rev Nutr 24:401–431

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Brown CD, Higgins M, Donato KA, Rohde FC, Garrison R, Obarzanek E, Ernst ND, Horan M (2000) Body mass index and the prevalence of hypertension and dyslipidemia. Obes Res 8: 605–619

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Brownson RC, Boehmer TK, Luke DA (2005) Declining rates of physical activity in the United States: what are the contributors? Annu Rev Public Health 26:421–443

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Brozek J, Grande F, Anderson JT, Keys A (1963) Densitometric analysis of body composition: revision of some quantitative assumptions. Ann N Y Acad Sci 110:113–140

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Brunello G, D’Hombres B (2007) Does body weight affect wages? Evidence from Europe. Econ Hum Biol 5:1–19

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Cacciari E, Milani S, Balsamo A, Spada E, Bona G, Cavallo L, Cerutti F, Gargantini L, Greggio N, Tonini G, Cicognani A (2006) Italian cross-sectional growth charts for height, weight and BMI (2 to 20 yr). J Endocrinol Invest 29:581–593

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Calle EE, Rodriguez C, Walker-Thurmond K, Thun MJ (2003) Overweight, obesity, and mortality from cancer in a prospectively studied cohort of U.S. adults. N Engl J Med 348:1625–1638

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Cawley J, Rizzo JA, Haas K (2007) Occupation-specific absenteeism costs associated with obesity and morbid obesity. J Occup Environ Med 49:1317–1324

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • CDC (2010) Physical activity statistics: no leisure time physical activity trend chart 2010. http://www.cdc.gov/nccdphp/dnpa/physical/stats/leisure_time.htm. Accessed 10 June 2010

  • Chan CB, Spangler E, Valcour J, Tudor-Locke C (2003) Cross-sectional relationship of pedometer-determined ambulatory activity to indicators of health. Obes Res 11:1563–1570

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Ching PL, Willett WC, Rimm EB, Colditz GA, Gortmaker SL, Stampfer MJ (1996) Activity level and risk of overweight in male health professionals. Am J Public Health 86:25–30

    PubMed Central  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Clarke R, Emberson J, Fletcher A, Breeze E, Marmot M, Shipley MJ (2009) Life expectancy in relation to cardiovascular risk factors: 38 year follow-up of 19,000 men in the Whitehall study. BMJ 339:b3513

    PubMed Central  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Colditz GA, Willett WC, Rotnitzky A, Manson JE (1995) Weight gain as a risk factor for clinical diabetes mellitus in women. Ann Intern Med 122:481–486

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Cole TJ, Freeman JV, Preece MA (1998) British 1990 growth reference centiles for weight, height, body mass index and head circumference fitted by maximum penalized likelihood. Stat Med 17:407–429

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Cole TJ, Bellizzi MC, Flegal KM, Dietz WH (2000) Establishing a standard definition for child overweight and obesity worldwide: international survey. BMJ 320:1240–1243

    PubMed Central  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Cordero-MacIntyre ZR, Peters W, Libanati CR, Espana RC, Abila SO, Howell WH, Lohman TG (2002) Reproducibility of DXA in obese women. J Clin Densitom 5:35–44

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Covey MK, Berry JK, Hacker ED (2010) Regional body composition: cross-calibration of DXA scanners–QDR4500W and Discovery Wi. Obesity (Silver Spring) 18:632–637

    Google Scholar 

  • Curhan GC, Chertow GM, Willett WC, Spiegelman D, Colditz GA, Manson JE, Speizer FE, Stampfer MJ (1996a) Birth weight and adult hypertension and obesity in women. Circulation 94:1310–1315

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Curhan GC, Willett WC, Rimm EB, Spiegelman D, Ascherio AL, Stampfer MJ (1996b) Birth weight and adult hypertension, diabetes mellitus, and obesity in US men. Circulation 94: 3246–3250

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Danaei G, Vander Hoorn S, Lopez AD, Murray CJ, Ezzati M (2005) Causes of cancer in the world: comparative risk assessment of nine behavioural and environmental risk factors. Lancet 366:1784–1793

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • de Onis M, Blossner M (2000) Prevalence and trends of overweight among preschool children in developing countries. Am J Clin Nutr 72:1032–1039

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • de Onis M, Blossner M (2003) The World Health Organization Global Database on Child Growth and Malnutrition: methodology and applications. Int J Epidemiol 32:518–526

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • de Onis M, Garza C, Victora CG, Onyango AW, Frongillo EA, Martines J (2004) The WHO Multicentre Growth Reference Study: planning, study design, and methodology. Food Nutr Bull 25:S15–26

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • de Onis M, Onyango AW, Borghi E, Siyam A, Nishida C, Siekmann J (2007) Development of a WHO growth reference for school-aged children and adolescents. Bull World Health Organ 85:660–667

    PubMed Central  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Deurenberg P, Deurenberg-Yap M, Guricci S (2002) Asians are different from Caucasians and from each other in their body mass index/body fat per cent relationship. Obes Rev 3:141–146

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Dewey KG (2003) Is breastfeeding protective against child obesity? J Hum Lact 19:9–18

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Dietz WH Jr, Gortmaker SL (1985) Do we fatten our children at the television set? Obesity and television viewing in children and adolescents. Pediatrics 75:807–812

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Diliberti N, Bordi PL, Conklin MT, Roe LS, Rolls BJ (2004) Increased portion size leads to increased energy intake in a restaurant meal. Obes Res 12:562–568

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Dinges DF, Pack F, Williams K, Gillen KA, Powell JW, Ott GE, Aptowicz C, Pack AI (1997) Cumulative sleepiness, mood disturbance, and psychomotor vigilance performance decrements during a week of sleep restricted to 4–5 hours per night. Sleep 20:267–277

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Du H, van der AD, Boshuizen HC, Forouhi NG, Wareham NJ, Halkjaer J, Tjonneland A, Overvad K, Jakobsen MU, Boeing H, Buijsse B, Masala G, Palli D, Sorensen TI, Saris WH, Feskens EJ (2010) Dietary fiber and subsequent changes in body weight and waist circumference in European men and women. Am J Clin Nutr 91:329–336

    Google Scholar 

  • Eck LH, Klesges RC, Hanson CL, Slawson D (1992) Children at familial risk for obesity: an examination of dietary intake, physical activity and weight status. Int J Obes Relat Metab Disord 16:71–78

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Erickson SJ, Robinson TN, Haydel KF, Killen JD (2000) Are overweight children unhappy?: Body mass index, depressive symptoms, and overweight concerns in elementary school children. Arch Pediatr Adolesc Med 154:931–935

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Evans WJ, Campbell WW (1993) Sarcopenia and age-related changes in body composition and functional capacity. J Nutr 123:465–468

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Faith MS, Pietrobelli A, Nunez C, Heo M, Heymsfield SB, Allison DB (1999) Evidence for independent genetic influences on fat mass and body mass index in a pediatric twin sample. Pediatrics 104:61–67

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Fakhrawi DH, Beeson L, Libanati C, Feleke D, Kim H, Quansah A, Darnell A, Lammi-Keefe CJ, Cordero-MacIntyre Z (2009) Comparison of body composition by bioelectrical impedance and dual-energy x-ray absorptiometry in overweight/obese postmenopausal women. J Clin Densitom 12:238–244

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Fields DA, Hunter GR, Goran MI (2000) Validation of the BOD POD with hydrostatic weighing: influence of body clothing. Int J Obes Relat Metab Disord 24:200–205

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Finkelstein EA, Trogdon JG, Cohen JW, Dietz W (2009) Annual medical spending attributable to obesity: payer-and service-specific estimates. Health Aff (Millwood) 28:w822–831

    Google Scholar 

  • Fisher JO, Birch LL, Smiciklas-Wright H, Picciano MF (2000) Breast-feeding through the first year predicts maternal control in feeding and subsequent toddler energy intakes. J Am Diet Assoc 100:641–646

    PubMed Central  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Fisher JO, Mitchell DC, Smiciklas-Wright H, Birch LL (2002) Parental influences on young girls’ fruit and vegetable, micronutrient, and fat intakes. J Am Diet Assoc 102:58–64

    PubMed Central  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Flegal KM, Carroll MD, Ogden CL, Johnson CL (2002) Prevalence and trends in obesity among US adults, 1999–2000. JAMA 288:1723–1727

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Flegal KM, Graubard BI, Williamson DF, Gail MH (2005) Excess deaths associated with underweight, overweight, and obesity. JAMA 293:1861–1867

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Flegal KM, Graubard BI, Williamson DF, Gail MH (2007) Cause-specific excess deaths associated with underweight, overweight, and obesity. JAMA 298:2028–2037

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Flegal KM, Shepherd JA, Looker AC, Graubard BI, Borrud LG, Ogden CL, Harris TB, Everhart JE, Schenker N (2009) Comparisons of percentage body fat, body mass index, waist circumference, and waist-stature ratio in adults. Am J Clin Nutr 89:500–508

    PubMed Central  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Flegal KM, Carroll MD, Ogden CL, Curtin LR (2010a) Prevalence and trends in obesity among US adults, 1999–2008. JAMA 303:235–241

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Flegal KM, Ogden CL, Yanovski JA, Freedman DS, Shepherd JA, Graubard BI, Borrud LG (2010b) High adiposity and high body mass index-for-age in US children and adolescents overall and by race-ethnic group. Am J Clin Nutr 91:1020–1026

    PubMed Central  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Flegal KM, Ogden CL (2011) Childhood obesity: are we all speaking the same language? Adv Nutr 2:159S–166S.

    PubMed Central  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Fonseca H, Matos MG, Guerra A, Pedro JG (2009) Are overweight and obese adolescents different from their peers? Int J Pediatr Obes 4:166–174

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Fox CS, Pencina MJ, Meigs JB, Vasan RS, Levitzky YS, D’Agostino RB Sr (2006) Trends in the incidence of type 2 diabetes mellitus from the 1970s to the 1990s: the Framingham Heart Study. Circulation 113:2914–2918

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Frank LD, Sallis JF, Saelens BE, Leary L, Cain K, Conway TL, Hess PM (2010) The development of a walkability index: application to the Neighborhood Quality of Life Study. Br J Sports Med 44:924–933

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Franklin SS, Pio JR, Wong ND, Larson MG, Leip EP, Vasan RS, Levy D (2005) Predictors of new-onset diastolic and systolic hypertension: the Framingham Heart Study. Circulation 111: 1121–1127

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Franklin J, Denyer G, Steinbeck KS, Caterson ID, Hill AJ (2006) Obesity and risk of low self-esteem: a statewide survey of Australian children. Pediatrics 118:2481–2487

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Freedman DS, Khan LK, Serdula MK, Dietz WH, Srinivasan SR, Berenson GS (2005) The relation of childhood BMI to adult adiposity: the Bogalusa Heart Study. Pediatrics 115:22–27

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • French SA, Jeffery RW, Story M, Hannan P, Snyder MP (1997) A pricing strategy to promote low-fat snack choices through vending machines. Am J Public Health 87:849–851

    PubMed Central  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • French SA, Jeffery RW, Story M, Breitlow KK, Baxter JS, Hannan P, Snyder MP (2001) Pricing and promotion effects on low-fat vending snack purchases: the CHIPS Study. Am J Public Health 91:112–117

    PubMed Central  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Fryar CD, Carroll M, Ogden CL (2012a) Prevalence of obesity among children and adolescents: United States, trends 1963–1965 through 2009–2010. http://www.cdc.gov/nchs/data/hestat/obesity\_child\_09\_10/obesity\_child\_09\_10.pdf. Accessed 30 May 2013

  • Fryar CD, Carroll M, Ogden CL (2012b) Prevalence of overweight, obesity, and extreme obesity among adults: United States, trends 1976–1980 through 2009–2010. http://www.cdc.gov/nchs/data/hestat/obesity_adult_09_10/obesity_adult_09_10.pdf. Accessed 30 June 2013

  • Fuentes RM, Notkola IL, Shemeikka S, Tuomilehto J, Nissinen A (2003) Tracking of body mass index during childhood: a 15-year prospective population-based family study in eastern Finland. Int J Obes Relat Metab Disord 27:716–721

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Fung TT, Hu FB, Yu J, Chu NF, Spiegelman D, Tofler GH, Willett WC, Rimm EB (2000) Leisure-time physical activity, television watching, and plasma biomarkers of obesity and cardiovascular disease risk. Am J Epidemiol 152:1171–1178

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Galcheva SV, Iotova VM, Stratev VK (2008) Television food advertising directed towards Bulgarian children. Arch Dis Child 93:857–861

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Gallagher D, Visser M, Sepulveda D, Pierson RN, Harris T, Heymsfield SB (1996) How useful is body mass index for comparison of body fatness across age, sex, and ethnic groups? Am J Epidemiol 143:228–239

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Gallagher D, Visser M, De Meersman RE, Sepulveda D, Baumgartner RN, Pierson RN, Harris T, Heymsfield SB (1997) Appendicular skeletal muscle mass: effects of age, gender, and ethnicity. J Appl Physiol 83:229–239

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Gangwisch JE, Malaspina D, Boden-Albala B, Heymsfield SB (2005) Inadequate sleep as a risk factor for obesity: analyses of the NHANES I. Sleep 28:1289–1296

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Gillman MW, Rifas-Shiman S, Berkey CS, Field AE, Colditz GA (2003) Maternal gestational diabetes, birth weight, and adolescent obesity. Pediatrics 111:e221–226

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Gillum RF, Sempos CT (2005) Ethnic variation in validity of classification of overweight and obesity using self-reported weight and height in American women and men: the Third National Health and Nutrition Examination Survey. Nutr J 4:27

    PubMed Central  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Gunnell DJ, Frankel SJ, Nanchahal K, Peters TJ, Davey Smith G (1998) Childhood obesity and adult cardiovascular mortality: a 57-y follow-up study based on the Boyd Orr cohort. Am J Clin Nutr 67:1111–1118

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Gupta NK, Mueller WH, Chan W, Meininger JC (2002) Is obesity associated with poor sleep quality in adolescents? Am J Hum Biol 14:762–768

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Guthrie JF, Morton JF (2000) Food sources of added sweeteners in the diets of Americans. J Am Diet Assoc 100:43–51, quiz 49–50

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Guthrie JF, Lin BH, Frazao E (2002) Role of food prepared away from home in the American diet, 1977–78 versus 1994–96: changes and consequences. J Nutr Educ Behav 34:140–150

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Hajian-Tilaki KO, Heidari B (2010) Association of educational level with risk of obesity and abdominal obesity in Iranian adults. J Public Health (Oxf) 32:202–209

    CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Hancox RJ, Milne BJ, Poulton R (2004) Association between child and adolescent television viewing and adult health: a longitudinal birth cohort study. Lancet 364:257–262

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Harder T, Bergmann R, Kallischnigg G, Plagemann A (2005) Duration of breastfeeding and risk of overweight: a meta-analysis. Am J Epidemiol 162:397–403

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Harnack LJ, Jeffery RW, Boutelle KN (2000) Temporal trends in energy intake in the United States: an ecologic perspective. Am J Clin Nutr 71:1478–1484

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Hartz AJ, Rupley DC Jr, Kalkhoff RD, Rimm AA (1983) Relationship of obesity to diabetes: influence of obesity level and body fat distribution. Prev Med 12:351–357

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Haug E, Rasmussen M, Samdal O, Iannotti R, Kelly C, Borraccino A, Vereecken C, Melkevik O, Lazzeri G, Giacchi M, Ercan O, Due P, Ravens-Sieberer U, Currie C, Morgan A, Ahluwalia N (2009) Overweight in school-aged children and its relationship with demographic and lifestyle factors: results from the WHO-Collaborative Health Behaviour in School-aged Children (HBSC) study. Int J Public Health 54(Suppl 2):167–179

    PubMed Central  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • He K, Hu FB, Colditz GA, Manson JE, Willett WC, Liu S (2004) Changes in intake of fruits and vegetables in relation to risk of obesity and weight gain among middle-aged women. Int J Obes Relat Metab Disord 28:1569–1574

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Himes JH, Dietz WH (1994) Guidelines for overweight in adolescent preventive services: recommendations from an expert committee. The Expert Committee on Clinical Guidelines for Overweight in Adolescent Preventive Services. Am J Clin Nutr 59:307–316

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Hu FB, Li TY, Colditz GA, Willett WC, Manson JE (2003) Television watching and other sedentary behaviors in relation to risk of obesity and type 2 diabetes mellitus in women. JAMA 289: 1785–1791

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Hu FB (2008) Obesity epidemiology Oxford University Press, New York.

    Google Scholar 

  • Institute of Medicine (2005) Preventing childhood obesity: health in the balance. The National Academies Press, Washington, DC

    Google Scholar 

  • Jackson AS, Pollock ML (1978) Generalized equations for predicting body density of men. Br J Nutr 40:497–504

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Jackson DM, Djafarian K, Stewart J, Speakman JR (2009) Increased television viewing is associated with elevated body fatness but not with lower total energy expenditure in children. Am J Clin Nutr 89:1031–1036

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Jakes RW, Day NE, Khaw KT, Luben R, Oakes S, Welch A, Bingham S, Wareham NJ (2003) Television viewing and low participation in vigorous recreation are independently associated with obesity and markers of cardiovascular disease risk: EPIC-Norfolk population-based study. Eur J Clin Nutr 57:1089–1096

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Janssen I, Katzmarzyk PT, Ross R (2004) Waist circumference and not body mass index explains obesity-related health risk. Am J Clin Nutr 79:379–384

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Jia H, Lubetkin EI (2005) The impact of obesity on health-related quality-of-life in the general adult US population. J Public Health (Oxf) 27:156–164

    Google Scholar 

  • Joint National Committee on Prevention, Detection, Evaluation, and Treatment of High Blood Pressure (2004) The seventh report of the Joint National Committee on Prevention, Detection, Evaluation, and Treatment of High Blood Pressure: complete report. US Department of Health and Human Services, Bethesda

    Google Scholar 

  • Karnehed N, Rasmussen F, Hemmingsson T, Tynelius P (2006) Obesity and attained education: cohort study of more than 700,000 Swedish men. Obesity (Silver Spring) 14:1421–1428

    Google Scholar 

  • Kearney JM, Hulshof KF, Gibney MJ (2001) Eating patterns–temporal distribution, converging and diverging foods, meals eaten inside and outside of the home–implications for developing FBDG. Public Health Nutr 4:693–698

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Kiebzak GM, Leamy LJ, Pierson LM, Nord RH, Zhang ZY (2000) Measurement precision of body composition variables using the lunar DPX-L densitometer. J Clin Densitom 3:35–41

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Kim S, Moon S, Popkin BM (2000) The nutrition transition in South Korea. Am J Clin Nutr 71: 44–53

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Klarenbach S, Padwal R, Chuck A, Jacobs P (2006) Population-based analysis of obesity and workforce participation. Obesity (Silver Spring) 14:920–927

    Google Scholar 

  • Koh-Banerjee P, Franz M, Sampson L, Liu S, Jacobs DR Jr, Spiegelman D, Willett W, Rimm E (2004) Changes in whole-grain, bran, and cereal fiber consumption in relation to 8-y weight gain among men. Am J Clin Nutr 80:1237–1245

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Kollias A, Antonodimitrakis P, Grammatikos E, Chatziantonakis N, Grammatikos EE, Stergiou GS (2009) Trends in high blood pressure prevalence in Greek adolescents. J Hum Hypertens 23:385–390

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Kotsis V, Stabouli S, Papakatsika S, Rizos Z, Parati G (2010) Mechanisms of obesity-induced hypertension. Hypertens Res 33:386–393

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Kral TV, Rauh EM (2010) Eating behaviors of children in the context of their family environment. Physiol Behav 100:567–573

    PubMed Central  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Kral TV, Rolls BJ (2004) Energy density and portion size: their independent and combined effects on energy intake. Physiol Behav 82:131–138

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Krebs NF, Himes JH, Jacobson D, Nicklas TA, Guilday P, Styne D (2007) Assessment of child and adolescent overweight and obesity. Pediatrics 120(Suppl 4):S193–228

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Kruger J, Ham SA, Kohl HW (2005) Trends in leisure-time physical inactivity by age, sex, and race/ethnicity–United States, 1994–2004. MMWR Morb Mortal Wkly Rep 54:991–994

    Google Scholar 

  • Kuczmarski RJ, Ogden CL, Guo SS, Grummer-Strawn LM, Flegal KM, Mei Z, Wei R, Curtin LR, Roche AF, Johnson CL (2002) 2000 CDC Growth Charts for the United States: methods and development. Vital Health Stat 11:1–190

    Google Scholar 

  • Lahti-Koski M, Pietinen P, Heliovaara M, Vartiainen E (2002) Associations of body mass index and obesity with physical activity, food choices, alcohol intake, and smoking in the 1982–1997 FINRISK Studies. Am J Clin Nutr 75:809–817

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Lamb MM, Carroll MD, Ogden CL (2009) Overweight/obesity among school-aged youth in the United States. The State Education Standard 10:4–13. www.nasbe.org. Accessed 15 Jan 2011

    Google Scholar 

  • Laskarzewski P, Morrison JA, Khoury P, Kelly K, Glatfelter L, Larsen R, Glueck CJ (1980) Parent-child nutrient intake interrelationships in school children ages 6 to 19: the Princeton School District Study. Am J Clin Nutr 33:2350–2355

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Lauer RM, Lee J, Clarke WR (1988) Factors affecting the relationship between childhood and adult cholesterol levels: the Muscatine Study. Pediatrics 82:309–318

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Levy E, Levy P, Le Pen C, Basdevant A (1995) The economic cost of obesity: the French situation. Int J Obes Relat Metab Disord 19:788–792

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Li S, Chen W, Srinivasan SR, Bond MG, Tang R, Urbina EM, Berenson GS (2003) Childhood cardiovascular risk factors and carotid vascular changes in adulthood: the Bogalusa Heart Study. JAMA 290:2271–2276

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Lindahl B, Stegmayr B, Johansson I, Weinehall L, Hallmans G (2003) Trends in lifestyle 1986–99 in a 25- to 64-year-old population of the Northern Sweden MONICA project. Scand J Public Health Suppl 61:31–37

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Lindstrom M, Isacsson SO, Merlo J (2003) Increasing prevalence of overweight, obesity and physical inactivity: two population-based studies 1986 and 1994. Eur J Public Health 13: 306–312

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Liu S, Willett WC, Manson JE, Hu FB, Rosner B, Colditz G (2003) Relation between changes in intakes of dietary fiber and grain products and changes in weight and development of obesity among middle-aged women. Am J Clin Nutr 78:920–927

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Lohman TG (1981) Skinfolds and body density and their relation to body fatness: a review. Hum Biol 53:181–225

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Ludwig DS, Pereira MA, Kroenke CH, Hilner JE, Van Horn L, Slattery ML, Jacobs DR Jr (1999) Dietary fiber, weight gain, and cardiovascular disease risk factors in young adults. JAMA 282:1539–1546

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Ludwig DS, Peterson KE, Gortmaker SL (2001) Relation between consumption of sugar-sweetened drinks and childhood obesity: a prospective, observational analysis. Lancet 357:505–508

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • MacMahon S, Cutler J, Brittain E, Higgins M (1987) Obesity and hypertension: epidemiological and clinical issues. Eur Heart J 8(Suppl B):57–70

    Google Scholar 

  • Malik VS, Schulze MB, Hu FB (2006) Intake of sugar-sweetened beverages and weight gain: a systematic review. Am J Clin Nutr 84:274–288

    PubMed Central  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Marks GC, Habicht JP, Mueller WH (1989) Reliability, dependability, and precision of anthropometric measurements. The Second National Health and Nutrition Examination Survey 1976–1980. Am J Epidemiol 130:578–587

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Marshall SJ, Gorely T, Biddle SJ (2006) A descriptive epidemiology of screen-based media use in youth: a review and critique. J Adolesc 29:333–349

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • McDonald NC (2007) Active transportation to school: trends among U.S. schoolchildren, 1969–2001. Am J Prev Med 32:509–516

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Milder IE, Klungel OH, Mantel-Teeuwisse AK, Verschuren WM, Bemelmans WJ (2010) Relation between body mass index, physical inactivity and use of prescription drugs: the Doetinchem Cohort Study. Int J Obes (Lond) 34:1060–1069

    CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Miller WC, Niederpruem MG, Wallace JP, Lindeman AK (1994) Dietary fat, sugar, and fiber predict body fat content. J Am Diet Assoc 94:612–615

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Monteiro CA, Mondini L, de Souza AL, Popkin BM (1995) The nutrition transition in Brazil. Eur J Clin Nutr 49:105–113

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Moreno LA, Pigeot I, Ahrens W (2011) Epidemiology of obesity in children and adolescents – prevalence and etiology. Springer, Berlin/Heidelberg/New York

    Google Scholar 

  • Mossberg HO (1989) 40-year follow-up of overweight children. Lancet 2:491–493

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Must A, Jacques PF, Dallal GE, Bajema CJ, Dietz WH (1992) Long-term morbidity and mortality of overweight adolescents. A follow-up of the Harvard Growth Study of 1922 to 1935. N Engl J Med 327:1350–1355

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Nader PR, Bradley RH, Houts RM, McRitchie SL, O’Brien M (2008) Moderate-to-vigorous physical activity from ages 9 to 15 years. JAMA 300:295–305

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • National Cholesterol Education Program (USA) (2002) Third report of the National Cholesterol Education Program (NCEP) Expert Panel on Detection, Evaluation, and Treatment of High Blood Cholesterol in Adults (Adult Treatment Panel III): final report. National Institutes of Health, Washington, DC

    Google Scholar 

  • National Institutes of Health (1998) Clinical guidelines on the identification, evaluation, and treatment of overweight and obesity in adults: executive summary. Expert Panel on the Identification, Evaluation, and Treatment of Overweight in Adults. Am J Clin Nutr 68: 899–917

    Google Scholar 

  • Nelson LH, Tucker LA (1996) Diet composition related to body fat in a multivariate study of 203 men. J Am Diet Assoc 96:771–777

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Nestle M (2003) Increasing portion sizes in American diets: more calories, more obesity. J Am Diet Assoc 103:39–40

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Nielsen SJ, Popkin BM (2003) Patterns and trends in food portion sizes, 1977–1998. JAMA 289:450–453

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Nielsen SJ, Siega-Riz AM, Popkin BM (2002) Trends in energy intake in U.S. between 1977 and 1996: similar shifts seen across age groups. Obes Res 10:370–378

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Noreen EE, Lemon PW (2006) Reliability of air displacement plethysmography in a large, heterogeneous sample. Med Sci Sports Exerc 38:1505–1509

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • O’Dwyer NA, Gibney MJ, Burke SJ, McCarthy SN (2005) The influence of eating location on nutrient intakes in Irish adults: implications for developing food-based dietary guidelines. Public Health Nutr 8:258–265

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Ogden CL, Carroll MD, Curtin LR, Lamb MM, Flegal KM (2010) Prevalence of high body mass index in US children and adolescents, 2007–2008. JAMA 303:242–249

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Oken E, Rifas-Shiman SL, Field AE, Frazier AL, Gillman MW (2008) Maternal gestational weight gain and offspring weight in adolescence. Obstet Gynecol 112:999–1006

    PubMed Central  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Olaiz-Fernàndez G R-DJ, Shamah-Levy T, Rojas R, Villalpando-Hernàndez S, Hernàndez-Avila M, Sepúlveda-Amor J (2006) Encuesta Nacional de Salud y Nutrición. http://www.todoendiabetes.org/diabe2/pdf/ensanut2006.pdf. Accessed 10 June 2010

  • Olds TS, Tomkinson GR, Ferrar KE, Maher CA (2010) Trends in the prevalence of childhood overweight and obesity in Australia between 1985 and 2008. Int J Obes (Lond) 34:57–66

    CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Oliveria SA, Ellison RC, Moore LL, Gillman MW, Garrahie EJ, Singer MR (1992) Parent-child relationships in nutrient intake: the Framingham Children’s Study. Am J Clin Nutr 56:593–598

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Ostchega Y, Carroll M, Prineas RJ, McDowell MA, Louis T, Tilert T (2009) Trends of elevated blood pressure among children and adolescents: data from the National Health and Nutrition Examination Survey 1988–2006. Am J Hypertens 22:59–67

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Owen N, Humpel N, Leslie E, Bauman A, Sallis JF (2004) Understanding environmental influences on walking; Review and research agenda. Am J Prev Med 27:67–76

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Owen CG, Martin RM, Whincup PH, Smith GD, Cook DG (2005) Effect of infant feeding on the risk of obesity across the life course: a quantitative review of published evidence. Pediatrics 115:1367–1377

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Parsons TJ, Power C, Manor O (2001) Fetal and early life growth and body mass index from birth to early adulthood in 1958 British cohort: longitudinal study. BMJ 323:1331–1335

    PubMed Central  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Parvanta SA, Brown JD, Du S, Zimmer CR, Zhao X, Zhai F (2010) Television use and snacking behaviors among children and adolescents in China. J Adolesc Health 46:339–345

    PubMed Central  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Patel SR, Hu FB (2008) Short sleep duration and weight gain: a systematic review. Obesity (Silver Spring) 16:643–653

    Google Scholar 

  • Pateyjohns IR, Brinkworth GD, Buckley JD, Noakes M, Clifton PM (2006) Comparison of three bioelectrical impedance methods with DXA in overweight and obese men. Obesity (Silver Spring) 14:2064–2070

    Google Scholar 

  • Peterson MJ, Czerwinski SA, Siervogel RM (2003) Development and validation of skinfold-thickness prediction equations with a 4-compartment model. Am J Clin Nutr 77:1186–1191

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Plourde G (1997) The role of radiologic methods in assessing body composition and related metabolic parameters. Nutr Rev 55:289–296

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Popkin BM (2001a) Nutrition in transition: the changing global nutrition challenge. Asia Pac J Clin Nutr 10(Suppl):S13–18

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Popkin BM (2001b) The nutrition transition and obesity in the developing world. J Nutr 131: 871S–873S

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Popkin BM (2008) Will China’s nutrition transition overwhelm its health care system and slow economic growth? Health Aff (Millwood) 27:1064–1076

    Google Scholar 

  • Popkin BM, Horton S, Kim S, Mahal A, Shuigao J (2001) Trends in diet, nutritional status, and diet-related noncommunicable diseases in China and India: the economic costs of the nutrition transition. Nutr Rev 59:379–390

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Powell LM, Szczypka G, Chaloupka FJ, Braunschweig CL (2007) Nutritional content of television food advertisements seen by children and adolescents in the United States. Pediatrics 120: 576–583

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Puhl RM, Heuer CA (2009) The stigma of obesity: a review and update. Obesity (Silver Spring) 17:941–964

    Google Scholar 

  • Puhl RM, Andreyeva T, Brownell KD (2008) Perceptions of weight discrimination: prevalence and comparison to race and gender discrimination in America. Int J Obes (Lond) 32:992–1000

    CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Putnam J, Allshouse J, Kantor LS (2002) U.S. per capita food supply trends: more calories, refined carbohydrates, and fats. Food Rev 25:2–15

    Google Scholar 

  • Raitakari OT, Juonala M, Kahonen M, Taittonen L, Laitinen T, Maki-Torkko N, Jarvisalo MJ, Uhari M, Jokinen E, Ronnemaa T, Akerblom HK, Viikari JS (2003) Cardiovascular risk factors in childhood and carotid artery intima-media thickness in adulthood: the Cardiovascular Risk in Young Finns Study. JAMA 290:2277–2283

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Ramirez-Ley K, De Lira-Garcia C, Souto-Gallardo Mde L, Tejeda-Lopez MF, Castaneda-Gonzalez LM, Bacardi-Gascon M, Jimenez-Cruz A (2009) Food-related advertising geared toward Mexican children. J Public Health (Oxf) 31:383–388

    Google Scholar 

  • Reilly JJ, Armstrong J, Dorosty AR, Emmett PM, Ness A, Rogers I, Steer C, Sherriff A (2005) Early life risk factors for obesity in childhood: cohort study. BMJ 330:1357

    PubMed Central  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Renehan AG, Roberts DL, Dive C (2008) Obesity and cancer: pathophysiological and biological mechanisms. Arch Physiol Biochem 114:71–83

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Renzaho A, Wooden M, Houng B (2010) Associations between body mass index and health-related quality of life among Australian adults. Qual Life Res 19:515–520

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Rogers RG, Hummer RA, Krueger PM (2003) The effect of obesity on overall, circulatory disease- and diabetes-specific mortality. J Biosoc Sci 35:107–129

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Rolland-Cachera MF, Deheeger M, Bellisle F, Sempe M, Guilloud-Bataille M, Patois E (1984) Adiposity rebound in children: a simple indicator for predicting obesity. Am J Clin Nutr 39:129–135

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Rolland-Cachera MF, Castetbon K, Arnault N, Bellisle F, Romano MC, Lehingue Y, Frelut ML, Hercberg S (2002) Body mass index in 7–9-y-old French children: frequency of obesity, overweight and thinness. Int J Obes Relat Metab Disord 26:1610–1616

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Rolls BJ, Roe LS, Kral TV, Meengs JS, Wall DE (2004) Increasing the portion size of a packaged snack increases energy intake in men and women. Appetite 42:63–69

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Sach TH, Barton GR, Doherty M, Muir KR, Jenkinson C, Avery AJ (2007) The relationship between body mass index and health-related quality of life: comparing the EQ-5D, EuroQol VAS and SF-6D. Int J Obes (Lond) 31:189–196

    CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Saelens BE, Sallis JF, Black JB, Chen D (2003) Neighborhood-based differences in physical activity: an environment scale evaluation. Am J Public Health 93:1552–1558

    PubMed Central  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Sallis JF (2000) Age-related decline in physical activity: a synthesis of human and animal studies. Med Sci Sports Exerc 32:1598–1600

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Satterfield S, Cutler JA, Langford HG, Applegate WB, Borhani NO, Brittain E, Cohen JD, Kuller LH, Lasser NL, Oberman A, Rosner B, Taylor J, Vogt T, Walker G, Whelton PK (1991) Trials of hypertension prevention. Phase I design. Ann Epidemiol 1:455–471

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Savastano S, Belfiore A, Di Somma C, Mauriello C, Rossi A, Pizza G, De Rosa A, Prestieri G, Angrisani L, Colao A (2010) Validity of bioelectrical impedance analysis to estimate body composition changes after bariatric surgery in premenopausal morbidly women. Obes Surg 20:332–339

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Savva SC, Tornaritis M, Chadjigeorgiou C, Kourides YA, Savva ME, Panagi A, Chrictodoulou E, Kafatos A (2005) Prevalence and socio-demographic associations of undernutrition and obesity among preschool children in Cyprus. Eur J Clin Nutr 59:1259–1265

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Schmidhuber J, Traill WB (2006) The changing structure of diets in the European Union in relation to healthy eating guidelines. Public Health Nutr 9:584–595

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Schulze MB, Manson JE, Ludwig DS, Colditz GA, Stampfer MJ, Willett WC, Hu FB (2004) Sugar-sweetened beverages, weight gain, and incidence of type 2 diabetes in young and middle-aged women. JAMA 292:927–934

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Seach KA, Dharmage SC, Lowe AJ, Dixon JB (2010) Delayed introduction of solid feeding reduces child overweight and obesity at 10 years. Int J Obes (Lond) 34:1475–1479

    CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Segal L, Carter R, Zimmet P (1994) The cost of obesity: the Australian perspective. Pharmacoeconomics 5:45–52

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Seidell JC, Cigolini M, Deslypere JP, Charzewska J, Ellsinger BM, Cruz A (1991) Body fat distribution in relation to physical activity and smoking habits in 38-year-old European men. The European Fat Distribution Study. Am J Epidemiol 133:257–265

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Serdula MK, Ivery D, Coates RJ, Freedman DS, Williamson DF, Byers T (1993) Do obese children become obese adults? A review of the literature. Prev Med 22:167–177

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Shields M, Tremblay MS (2010) Canadian childhood obesity estimates based on WHO, IOTF and CDC cut-points. Int J Pediatr Obes 5:265–273

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Simmons G, Jackson R, Swinburn B, Yee RL (1996) The increasing prevalence of obesity in New Zealand: is it related to recent trends in smoking and physical activity? N Z Med J 109:90–92

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Singh GK, Siahpush M, Kogan MD (2010) Neighborhood socio-economic conditions, built environments, and childhood obesity. Health Aff (Millwood) 29:503–512

    Google Scholar 

  • Sjoberg A, Lissner L, Albertsson-Wikland K, Marild S (2008) Recent anthropometric trends among Swedish school children: evidence for decreasing prevalence of overweight in girls. Acta Paediatr 97:118–123

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Soltoft F, Hammer M, Kragh N (2009) The association of body mass index and health-related quality of life in the general population: data from the 2003 Health Survey of England. Qual Life Res 18:1293–1299

    PubMed Central  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Sorensen HT, Sabroe S, Rothman KJ, Gillman M, Fischer P, Sorensen TI (1997) Relation between weight and length at birth and body mass index in young adulthood: cohort study. BMJ 315:1137

    PubMed Central  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Spiegel K, Leproult R, Van Cauter E (1999) Impact of sleep debt on metabolic and endocrine function. Lancet 354:1435–1439

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Spiegel K, Tasali E, Penev P, Van Cauter E (2004) Brief communication: sleep curtailment in healthy young men is associated with decreased leptin levels, elevated ghrelin levels, and increased hunger and appetite. Ann Intern Med 141:846–850

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Stamatakis E, Ekelund U, Wareham NJ (2007) Temporal trends in physical activity in England: the Health Survey for England 1991 to 2004. Prev Med 45:416–423

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Stamatakis E, Zaninotto P, Falaschetti E, Mindell J, Head J (2010) Time trends in childhood and adolescent obesity in England from 1995 to 2007 and projections of prevalence to 2015. J Epidemiol Community Health 64:167–174

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Stamler J, Wentworth D, Neaton JD (1986) Is relationship between serum cholesterol and risk of premature death from coronary heart disease continuous and graded? Findings in 356,222 primary screenees of the Multiple Risk Factor Intervention Trial (MRFIT). JAMA 256: 2823–2828

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Staub K, Ruhli FJ, Woitek U, Pfister C (2010) BMI distribution/social stratification in Swiss conscripts from 1875 to present. Eur J Clin Nutr 64:335–340

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Stettler N, Signer TM, Suter PM (2004) Electronic games and environmental factors associated with childhood obesity in Switzerland. Obes Res 12:896–903

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Strauss RS, Knight J (1999) Influence of the home environment on the development of obesity in children. Pediatrics 103:e85

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Strauss RS, Pollack HA (2003) Social marginalization of overweight children. Arch Pediatr Adolesc Med 157:746–752

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Sun SS, Chumlea WC, Heymsfield SB, Lukaski HC, Schoeller D, Friedl K, Kuczmarski RJ, Flegal KM, Johnson CL, Hubbard VS (2003) Development of bioelectrical impedance analysis prediction equations for body composition with the use of a multicomponent model for use in epidemiologic surveys. Am J Clin Nutr 77:331–340

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Sun G, French CR, Martin GR, Younghusband B, Green RC, Xie YG, Mathews M, Barron JR, Fitzpatrick DG, Gulliver W, Zhang H (2005) Comparison of multifrequency bioelectrical impedance analysis with dual-energy X-ray absorptiometry for assessment of percentage body fat in a large, healthy population. Am J Clin Nutr 81:74–78

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Tang KH, Nguyen HH, Dibley MJ, Sibbritt DW, Phan NT, Tran TM (2010) Factors associated with adolescent overweight/obesity in Ho Chi Minh city. Int J Pediatr Obes 5:396–403

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Taveras EM, Gillman MW, Kleinman K, Rich-Edwards JW, Rifas-Shiman SL (2010) Racial/ethnic differences in early-life risk factors for childhood obesity. Pediatrics 125:686–695

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • The NS, Adair LS, Gordon-Larsen P (2010) A study of the birth weight-obesity relation using a longitudinal cohort and sibling and twin pairs. Am J Epidemiol 172:549–557

    PubMed Central  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • The Trials of Hypertension Prevention Collaborative Research Group (1992) The effects of nonpharmacologic interventions on blood pressure of persons with high normal levels. Results of the Trials of Hypertension Prevention, Phase I. JAMA 267:1213–1220

    Google Scholar 

  • The Trials of Hypertension Prevention Collaborative Research Group (1997) Effects of weight loss and sodium reduction intervention on blood pressure and hypertension incidence in overweight people with high-normal blood pressure. The Trials of Hypertension Prevention, Phase II. Arch Intern Med 157:657–667

    Google Scholar 

  • Thomson M, Spence JC, Raine K, Laing L (2008) The association of television viewing with snacking behavior and body weight of young adults. Am J Health Promot 22:329–335

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Tin Tin S, Woodward A, Thornley S, Ameratunga S (2009) Cycling and walking to work in New Zealand, 1991–2006: regional and individual differences, and pointers to effective interventions. Int J Behav Nutr Phys Act 6:64

    PubMed Central  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Tjepkema M (2006) Adult obesity. Health Rep 17:9–25

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Tochikubo O, Ikeda A, Miyajima E, Ishii M (1996) Effects of insufficient sleep on blood pressure monitored by a new multibiomedical recorder. Hypertension 27:1318–1324

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Troiano RP, Briefel RR, Carroll MD, Bialostosky K (2000) Energy and fat intakes of children and adolescents in the United States: data from the national health and nutrition examination surveys. Am J Clin Nutr 72:1343S–1353S

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Troiano RP, Berrigan D, Dodd KW, Masse LC, Tilert T, McDowell M (2008) Physical activity in the United States measured by accelerometer. Med Sci Sports Exerc 40:181–188

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Tuck SP, Pearce MS, Rawlings DJ, Birrell FN, Parker L, Francis RM (2005) Differences in bone mineral density and geometry in men and women: the Newcastle Thousand Families Study at 50 years old. Br J Radiol 78:493–498

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Tucker LA, Bagwell M (1991) Television viewing and obesity in adult females. Am J Public Health 81:908–911

    PubMed Central  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Tucker LA, Friedman GM (1989) Television viewing and obesity in adult males. Am J Public Health 79:516–518

    PubMed Central  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Tunceli K, Li K, Williams LK (2006) Long-term effects of obesity on employment and work limitations among U.S. Adults, 1986 to 1999. Obesity (Silver Spring) 14:1637–1646

    Google Scholar 

  • Ulijaszek SJ, Kerr DA (1999) Anthropometric measurement error and the assessment of nutritional status. Br J Nutr 82:165–177

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • United States Department of Health and Human Services (1996) Physical activity and health: a report of the Surgeon General Executive Summary. U.S. Department of Health and Human Services, Centers for Disease Control and Prevention; President’s Council on Physical Fitness and Sports, Atlanta

    Google Scholar 

  • United States Department of Health and Human Services (2000) Healthy people 2010. U.S. Department of Health and Human Services, Washington, DC

    Google Scholar 

  • United States Department of Health and Human Services (2008) 2008 physical activity guidelines for Americans: be active, healthy, and happy! U.S. Department of Health and Human Services, Washington, DC

    Google Scholar 

  • van der Kooy K, Seidell JC (1993) Techniques for the measurement of visceral fat: a practical guide. Int J Obes Relat Metab Disord 17:187–196

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • van Dijk L, Otters HB, Schuit AJ (2006) Moderately overweight and obese patients in general practice: a population based survey. BMC Fam Pract 7:43

    PubMed Central  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Van Dyck D, Cardon G, Deforche B, Sallis JF, Owen N, De Bourdeaudhuij I (2010) Neighborhood SES and walkability are related to physical activity behavior in Belgian adults. Prev Med 50(Suppl 1):S74–S79

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Viner RM, Cole TJ (2005) Television viewing in early childhood predicts adult body mass index. J Pediatr 147:429–435

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Wagner DR, Heyward VH (2000) Measures of body composition in blacks and whites: a comparative review. Am J Clin Nutr 71:1392–1402

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Wang J, Thornton JC, Bari S, Williamson B, Gallagher D, Heymsfield SB, Horlick M, Kotler D, Laferrere B, Mayer L, Pi-Sunyer FX, Pierson RN Jr (2003) Comparisons of waist circumferences measured at 4 sites. Am J Clin Nutr 77:379–384

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Wang YC, Bleich SN, Gortmaker SL (2008) Increasing caloric contribution from sugar-sweetened beverages and 100% fruit juices among US children and adolescents, 1988–2004. Pediatrics 121:e1604–e1614

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Wardle J, Waller J, Jarvis MJ (2002) Sex differences in the association of socio-economic status with obesity. Am J Public Health 92:1299–1304

    PubMed Central  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Weyermann M, Brenner H, Rothenbacher D (2007) Adipokines in human milk and risk of overweight in early childhood: a prospective cohort study. Epidemiology 18:722–729

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Whitworth JA (2003) 2003 World Health Organization (WHO)/International Society of Hypertension (ISH) statement on management of hypertension. J Hypertens 21:1983–1992

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • WHO Multicentre Growth Reference Study Group (2006) Enrolment and baseline characteristics in the WHO Multicentre Growth Reference Study. Acta Paediatr Suppl 450:7–15

    Google Scholar 

  • Willett W (1988) Nutritional epidemiology. Oxford University Press, New York

    Google Scholar 

  • Willett K, Jiang R, Lenart E, Spiegelman D, Willett W (2006) Comparison of bioelectrical impedance and BMI in predicting obesity-related medical conditions. Obesity (Silver Spring) 14:480–490

    Google Scholar 

  • Wilson PW, D’Agostino RB, Levy D, Belanger AM, Silbershatz H, Kannel WB (1998) Prediction of coronary heart disease using risk factor categories. Circulation 97:1837–1847

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Wolf AM, Colditz GA (1998) Current estimates of the economic cost of obesity in the United States. Obes Res 6:97–106

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • World Health Organization (2000) Obesity: preventing and managing the global epidemic. Report of a WHO consultation. World Health Organ Tech Rep Ser 894:i–xii, 1–253

    Google Scholar 

  • World Health Organization (2002) World Health Organization’s World Health Report, Reducing risks, promoting healthy life. http://www.who.int/whr/2002/en/whr02_en.pdf. Accessed 15 Jan 2011

  • World Health Organization (2010) Global database on body mass index: an interactive surveillance tool for monitoring nutrition transition 2010. http://apps.who.int/bmi/index.jsp. Accessed 10 June 2010

  • Wright JD, Kennedy-Stephenson J, Wang CY, McDowell MA (2004) Trends in intake of energy and macronutrients-United States, 1971–2000. MMWR Morb Mortal Wkly Rep 53:80–82

    Google Scholar 

  • Wright CS, Rifas-Shiman SL, Rich-Edwards JW, Taveras EM, Gillman MW, Oken E (2009) Intrauterine exposure to gestational diabetes, child adiposity, and blood pressure. Am J Hypertens 22:215–220

    PubMed Central  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Wrotniak BH, Shults J, Butts S, Stettler N (2008) Gestational weight gain and risk of overweight in the offspring at age 7 y in a multicenter, multiethnic cohort study. Am J Clin Nutr 87: 1818–1824

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Zimmerman FJ, Bell JF (2010) Associations of television content type and obesity in children. Am J Public Health 100:334–340

    PubMed Central  PubMed  Google Scholar 

Download references

Author information

Authors and Affiliations

  1. Division of Health and Nutrition Examination Surveys, National Center for Health Statistics, Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, 3311 Toledo Road, MS P08, 20782, Hyattsville, MD, USA

    Brian K. Kit, Cynthia L. Ogden & Katherine M. Flegal

Authors
  1. Brian K. Kit
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

  2. Cynthia L. Ogden
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

  3. Katherine M. Flegal
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

Editor information

Editors and Affiliations

  1. Department of Epidemiological Methods and Etiologic Research, Leibniz Institute for Prevention Research and Epidemiology – BIPS, Bremen, Germany

    Wolfgang Ahrens

  2. Department of Biometry and Data Management, Leibniz Institute for Prevention Research and Epidemiology – BIPS, Bremen, Germany

    Iris Pigeot

Rights and permissions

Reprints and permissions

Copyright information

© 2014 Springer Science+Business Media New York

About this entry

Cite this entry

Kit, B.K., Ogden, C.L., Flegal, K.M. (2014). Epidemiology of Obesity. In: Ahrens, W., Pigeot, I. (eds) Handbook of Epidemiology. Springer, New York, NY. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-0-387-09834-0_55

Download citation

  • DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/978-0-387-09834-0_55

  • Publisher Name: Springer, New York, NY

  • Print ISBN: 978-0-387-09833-3

  • Online ISBN: 978-0-387-09834-0

  • eBook Packages: MedicineReference Module Medicine

Publish with us

Policies and ethics

Search

Navigation