Abstract
Over the last decade, a growing body of research has examined the link between physical activity, fitness, and cognitive function in children and adolescents. Physical activity experimental research conducted with children and adolescents has identified selectively greater effects for tasks requiring higher order executive functions. As such, the primary aim of our chapter is to provide an overview of findings from systematic reviews and meta-analyses that have examined the effects of physical activity on measures of executive function in child and adolescent populations. We begin our chapter with definitions of key concepts associated with physical activity, fitness and cognitive function. We then provide a synthesis of systematic reviews and meta-analyses that have examined the acute and chronic effect of physical activity on EFs. Following this, we discuss the quantitative (e.g., time, intensity) and qualitative (e.g., type) characteristics of physical activity that may moderate effects. The next section focuses on the neurobiological, psychosocial and behavioral mechanisms responsible for the effect of physical activity on executive functions. We conclude by highlighting the limitations of the existing evidence base and providing recommendations for future research.
This is a preview of subscription content, log in via an institution to check access.
Access this chapter
Tax calculation will be finalised at checkout
Purchases are for personal use only
Similar content being viewed by others
References
Álvarez-Bueno C, Pesce C, Cavero-Redondo I, Sánchez-López M, Martinez-Hortelano JA, Martínez-Vizcaíno V (2017) The effect of physical activity interventions on children’s cognition and metacognition: a systematic review and meta-analysis. J Am Acad Child Adolesc Psychiatry 56(9):729–738. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jaac.2017.06.012
Amso D, Casey BJ (2006) Beyond what develops when: neuroimaging may inform how cognition changes with development. Curr Dir Psychol Sci 15(1):24–29. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.0963-7214.2006.00400.x
Andersen SL (2003) Trajectories of brain development: point of vulnerability or window of opportunity? Neurosci Biobehav Rev 27(1–2):3–18
Anderson PJ, Reidy N (2012) Assessing executive function in preschoolers. Neuropsychol Rev 22(4):345–360. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11065-012-9220-3
Astill RG, Van der Heijden KB, Van Ijzendoorn MH, Van Someren EJW (2012) Sleep, cognition, and behavioral problems in school-age children: a century of research meta-analyzed. Psychol Bull 138(6):1109–1138. https://doi.org/10.1037/a0028204
Aubert S, Barnes JD, Abdeta C, Abi Nader P, Adeniyi AF, Aguilar-Farias N et al (2018) Global matrix 3.0 physical activity report card grades for children and youth: results and analysis from 49 countries. J Phys Act Health 15(S2):S251–s273. https://doi.org/10.1123/jpah.2018-0472
Austin M-P, Mitchell P, Goodwin GM (2001) Cognitive deficits in depression: possible implications for functional neuropathology. Br J Psychiatry 178(3):200–206. https://doi.org/10.1192/bjp.178.3.200
Azevedo KPMD, de Oliveira VH, Medeiros GCBSD, Mata ÁNDS, García DÁ, Martínez DG, Leitão JC, Piuvezam G (2020) The effects of exercise on BDNF levels in adolescents: a systematic review with meta-analysis. Int J Environ Res Public Health 17(17). https://doi.org/10.3390/ijerph17176056
Baumeister RF (1997) Esteem threat, self-regulatory breakdown, and emotional distress as factors in self-defeating behavior. Rev Gen Psychol 1(2):145–174. https://doi.org/10.1037/1089-2680.1.2.145
Bull FC, Al-Ansari SS, Biddle S, Borodulin K, Buman MP, Cardon G et al (2020) World Health Organization 2020 guidelines on physical activity and sedentary behaviour. Br J Sports Med 54(24):1451–1462. https://doi.org/10.1136/bjsports-2020-102955
Casey BJ, Trainor RJ, Orendi JL, Schubert AB, Nystrom LE, Giedd JN et al (1997) A developmental functional MRI study of prefrontal activation during performance of a go-no-go task. J Cogn Neurosci 9(6):835–847. https://doi.org/10.1162/jocn.1997.9.6.835
Caspersen CJ, Powell KE, Christenson GM (1985) Physical activity, exercise, and physical fitness: definitions and distinctions for health related research. Public Health Rep 100(2):126–131
Chaddock L, Erickson KI, Prakash RS, Kim JS, Voss MW, VanPatter M et al (2010) A neuroimaging investigation of the association between aerobic fitness, hippocampal volume, and memory performance in preadolescent children. Brain Res 1358:172–183. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.brainres.2010.08.049
Chaddock-Heyman L, Erickson KI, Voss M, Knecht A, Pontifex MB, Castelli D et al (2013) The effects of physical activity on functional MRI activation associated with cognitive control in children: a randomized controlled intervention. Front Hum Neurosci 7:72. https://doi.org/10.3389/fnhum.2013.00072
Chaddock-Heyman L, Erickson KI, Holtrop JL, Voss MW, Pontifex MB, Raine LB et al (2014) Aerobic fitness is associated with greater white matter integrity in children. Front Hum Neurosci 8:584. https://doi.org/10.3389/fnhum.2014.00584
Chaddock-Heyman L, Erickson KI, Kienzler C, Drollette ES, Raine LB, Kao S-C et al (2018a) Physical activity increases white matter microstructure in children. Front Neurosci 12:950. https://doi.org/10.3389/fnins.2018.00950
Chaddock-Heyman L, Weng TB, Kienzler C, Erickson KI, Voss MW, Drollette ES et al (2018b) Scholastic performance and functional connectivity of brain networks in children. PLoS One 13(1):e0190073. https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0190073
Chang YK, Labban JD, Gapin JI, Etnier JL (2012) The effects of acute exercise on cognitive performance: a meta-analysis. Brain Res 1453:87–101. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.brainres.2012.02.068
Changeux JP, Danchin A (1976) Selective stabilisation of developing synapses as a mechanism for the specification of neuronal networks. Nature 264:705–712. https://doi.org/10.1038/264705a0
Chen A-G, Zhu L-N, Yan J, Yin H-C (2016) Neural basis of working memory enhancement after acute aerobic exercise: fMRI study of preadolescent children. Front Psychol 7. https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2016.01804
Cheng W, Rolls E, Gong W, Du J, Zhang J, Zhang X-Y et al (2020) Sleep duration, brain structure, and psychiatric and cognitive problems in children. Mol Psychiatry:1–12. https://doi.org/10.1038/s41380-020-0663-2
Colcombe S, Kramer AF (2003) Fitness effects on the cognitive function of older adults: a meta-analytic study. Psychol Sci 14(2):125–130
Corder K, Winpenny E, Love R, Brown HE, White M, Van Sluijs E (2019) Change in physical activity from adolescence to early adulthood: a systematic review and meta-analysis of longitudinal cohort studies. Br J Sports Med 53(8):496–503
de Greeff JW, Bosker RJ, Oosterlaan J, Visscher C, Hartman E (2018) Effects of physical activity on executive functions, attention and academic performance in preadolescent children: a meta-analysis. J Sci Med Sport 21(5):501–507. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jsams.2017.09.595
Diamond A (2013) Executive functions. Annu Rev Psychol 64:135–168
Diamond A, Ling DS (2016) Conclusions about interventions, programs, and approaches for improving executive functions that appear justified and those that, despite much hype, do not. Dev Cogn Neurosci 18:34–48. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.dcn.2015.11.005
Diamond A, Ling DS (2019) Review of the evidence on, and fundamental questions about, efforts to improve executive functions, including working memory. In: Novick JM, Bunting MF, Dougherty MR, Engle RW (eds) Cognitive and working memory training: perspectives from psychology, neuroscience, and human development. Oxford University Press, Oxford
Dong Z, Liu Z, Liu Y, Zhang R, Mo H, Gao L, Shi Y (2020) Physical exercise rectifies CUMS-induced aberrant regional homogeneity in mice accompanied by the adjustment of skeletal muscle PGC-1a/IDO1 signals and hippocampal function. Behav Brain Res 383:112516. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.bbr.2020.112516
Donnelly J, Hillman C, Castelli D, Etnier J, Lee S, Tomporowski P et al (2016) Physical activity, fitness, cognitive function, and academic achievement in children: a systematic review. Med Sci Sports Exerc 48(6):1223–1224. https://doi.org/10.1249/MSS.0000000000000966
Dumith SC, Gigante DP, Domingues MR, Kohl, H. W. r. (2011) Physical activity change during adolescence: a systematic review and a pooled analysis. Int J Epidemiol 40(3):685–698. https://doi.org/10.1093/ije/dyq272
Egger F, Conzelmann A, Schmidt M (2018) The effect of acute cognitively engaging physical activity breaks on children's executive functions: too much of a good thing? Psychol Sport Exerc 36:178–186. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.psychsport.2018.02.014
Egger F, Benzing V, Conzelmann A, Schmidt M (2019) Boost your brain, while having a break! The effects of long-term cognitively engaging physical activity breaks on children’s executive functions and academic achievement. PLoS One 14(3):e0212482. https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0212482
Ekkekakis P (2003) Pleasure and displeasure from the body: perspectives from exercise. Cognit Emot 17(2):213–239
Erickson KI, Prakash RS, Voss MW, Chaddock L, Hu L, Morris KS et al (2009) Aerobic fitness is associated with hippocampal volume in elderly humans. Hippocampus 19(10):1030–1039. https://doi.org/10.1002/hipo.20547
Fabiani M, Gratton G, Federmeier KD (2007) Event-related brain potentials. In: Berntson G, Cacioppo JT, Tassinary LG (eds) Handbook of psychophysiology, 3rd edn. Cambridge University Press, Cambridge
Farooq MA, Parkinson KN, Adamson AJ, Pearce MS, Reilly JK, Hughes AR et al (2018) Timing of the decline in physical activity in childhood and adolescence: Gateshead millennium cohort study. Br J Sports Med 52(15):1002–1006
Fernandes J, Arida RM, Gomez-Pinilla F (2017) Physical exercise as an epigenetic modulator of brain plasticity and cognition. Neurosci Biobehav Rev 80:443–456. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.neubiorev.2017.06.012
Firth J, Stubbs B, Vancampfort D, Schuch F, Lagopoulos J, Rosenbaum S, Ward PB (2018) Effect of aerobic exercise on hippocampal volume in humans: a systematic review and meta-analysis. Neuroimage 166:230–238. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.neuroimage.2017.11.007
Friston KJ (2011) Functional and effective connectivity: a review. Brain Connect 1(1):13–36. https://doi.org/10.1089/brain.2011.0008
Giedd JN, Blumenthal J, Jeffries NO, Castellanos FX, Liu H, Zijdenbos A et al (1999) Brain development during childhood and adolescence: a longitudinal MRI study. Nat Neurosci 2(10):861–863. https://doi.org/10.1038/13158
Goel N, Rao H, Durmer JS, Dinges DF (2009) Neurocognitive consequences of sleep deprivation. Semin Neurol 25(1):117–129. https://doi.org/10.1055/s-2005-867080
Gogtay N, Giedd JN, Lusk L, Hayashi KM, Greenstein D, Vaituzis AC et al (2004) Dynamic mapping of human cortical development during childhood through early adulthood. Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A 101(21):8174–8179. https://doi.org/10.1073/pnas.0402680101
Guthold R, Stevens GA, Riley LM, Bull FC (2020) Global trends in insufficient physical activity among adolescents: a pooled analysis of 298 population-based surveys with 1·6 million participants. Lancet Child Adolesc Health 4(1):23–35. https://doi.org/10.1016/S2352-4642(19)30323-2
Herold F, Törpel A, Schega L, Müller NG (2019) Functional and/or structural brain changes in response to resistance exercises and resistance training lead to cognitive improvements–a systematic review. Eur Rev Aging Phys Act 16:10. https://doi.org/10.1186/s11556-019-0217-2
Herting MM, Nagel BJ (2012) Aerobic fitness relates to learning on a virtual Morris water task and hippocampal volume in adolescents. Behav Brain Res 233(2):517–525. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.bbr.2012.05.012
Herting MM, Nagel BJ (2013) Differences in brain activity during a verbal associative memory encoding task in high-and low-fit adolescents. J Cogn Neurosci 25(4):595–612. https://doi.org/10.1162/jocn_a_00344
Herting MM, Colby JB, Sowell ER, Nagel BJ (2014) White matter connectivity and aerobic fitness in male adolescents. Dev Cogn Neurosci 7:65–75. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.dcn.2013.11.003
Hillman EM (2014) Coupling mechanism and significance of the BOLD signal: a status report. Annu Rev Neurosci 37:161–181. https://doi.org/10.1146/annurev-neuro-071013-014111
Hillman CH, Pontifex MB, Castelli DM, Khan NA, Raine LB, Scudder MR et al (2014) Effects of the FITKids randomized controlled trial on executive control and brain function. Pediatrics 134(4):e1063–e1071. https://doi.org/10.1542/peds.2013-3219
Hillman CH, Logan NE, Shigeta TT (2019a) A review of acute physical activity effects on brain and cognition in children. Transl J Am College Sports Med 4(17):132–136. https://doi.org/10.1249/TJX.0000000000000101
Hillman CH, McAuley E, Erickson KI, Liu-Ambrose T, Kramer AF (2019b) On mindful and mindless physical activity and executive function: a response to Diamond and Ling (2016). Dev Cogn Neurosci 37:100529–100529. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.dcn.2018.01.006
Hills AP, Andersen LB, Byrne NM (2011) Physical activity and obesity in children. Br J Sports Med 45(11):866–870. https://doi.org/10.1136/bjsports-2011-090199
Jansma JM, Ramsey NF, Slagter HA, Kahn RS (2001) Functional anatomical correlates of controlled and automatic processing. J Cogn Neurosci 13(6):730–743. https://doi.org/10.1162/08989290152541403
Janssen M, Chinapaw MJM, Rauh SP, Toussaint HM, van Mechelen W, Verhagen EALM (2014) A short physical activity break from cognitive tasks increases selective attention in primary school children aged 10–11. Ment Health Phys Act 7(3):129–134. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.mhpa.2014.07.001
Jeon YK, Ha CH (2017) The effect of exercise intensity on brain derived neurotrophic factor and memory in adolescents. Environ Health Prev Med 22:27. https://doi.org/10.1186/s12199-017-0643-6
Johnstone A, Marí-Beffa P (2018) The effects of martial arts training on attentional networks in typical adults. Front Psychol 9:80. https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2018.00080
Jung ME, Bourne JE, Little JP (2014) Where does HIT fit? An examination of the affective response to high-intensity intervals in comparison to continuous moderate-and continuous vigorous-intensity exercise in the exercise intensity-affect continuum. PLoS One 9(12):e114541. https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0114541
Krafft CE, Schaeffer DJ, Schwarz NF, Chi L, Weinberger AL, Pierce JE et al (2014) Improved frontoparietal white matter integrity in overweight children is associated with attendance at an after-school exercise program. Dev Neurosci 36(1):1–9. https://doi.org/10.1159/000356219
Lakes KD, Hoyt WT (2004) Promoting self-regulation through school-based martial arts training. J Appl Dev Psychol 25(3):283–302. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.appdev.2004.04.002
Lang C, Brand S, Feldmeth AK, Holsboer-Trachsler E, Pühse U, Gerber M (2013) Increased self-reported and objectively assessed physical activity predict sleep quality among adolescents. Physiol Behav 120:46–53
Leahy AA, Mavilidi MF, Smith JJ, Hillman CH, Eather N, Barker D, Lubans DR (2020) Review of high-intensity interval training for cognitive and mental health in youth. Med Sci Sports Exerc 52(10):2224–2234
Li L, Zhang J, Cao M, Hu W, Zhou T, Huang T et al (2020) The effects of chronic physical activity interventions on executive functions in children aged 3–7 years: a meta-analysis. J Sci Med Sport 23(10):949–954. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jsams.2020.03.007
Lista I, Sorrentino G (2010) Biological mechanisms of physical activity in preventing cognitive decline. Cell Mol Neurobiol 30(4):493–503. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10571-009-9488-x
Liu T, Li H, Colton JP, Ge S, Li C (2020) The BDNF Val66Met polymorphism, regular exercise, and cognition: a systematic review. West J Nurs Res 42(8):660–673. https://doi.org/10.1177/0193945920907308
Loprinzi PD (2019) Does brain-derived neurotrophic factor mediate the effects of exercise on memory? Phys Sportsmed 47(4):395–405. https://doi.org/10.1080/00913847.2019.1610255
Lubans D, Richards J, Hillman C, Faulkner G, Beauchamp M, Nilsson M et al (2016) Physical activity for cognitive and mental health in youth: a systematic review of mechanisms. Pediatrics 138(3). https://doi.org/10.1542/peds.2016-1642
Ludyga S, Gerber M, Brand S, Holsboer-Trachsler E, Pühse U (2016) Acute effects of moderate aerobic exercise on specific aspects of executive function in different age and fitness groups: a meta-analysis. Psychophysiology 53(11):1611–1626. https://doi.org/10.1111/psyp.12736
Ludyga S, Puhse U, Lucchi S, Marti J, Gerber M (2019) Immediate and sustained effects of intermittent exercise on inhibitory control and task-related heart rate variability in adolescents. J Sci Med Sport 22(1):96–100. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jsams.2018.05.027
Malik AA, Williams CA, Weston KL, Barker AR (2019) Perceptual and cardiorespiratory responses to high-intensity interval exercise in adolescents: does work intensity matter? J Sports Sci Med 18(1):1–12
Martin A, Booth JN, Laird Y, Sproule J, Reilly JJ, Saunders DH (2018) Physical activity, diet and other behavioural interventions for improving cognition and school achievement in children and adolescents with obesity or overweight. Cochrane Database Syst Rev 1(1):CD009728. https://doi.org/10.1002/14651858.CD009728.pub3
Master L, Nye RT, Lee S, Nahmod NG, Mariani S, Hale L, Buxton OM (2019) Bidirectional, daily temporal associations between sleep and physical activity in adolescents. Sci Rep 9(1):1–14. https://doi.org/10.1097/AJP.0b013e31829550c6
Mavilidi MF, Ruiter M, Schmidt M, Okely AD, Loyens S, Chandler P, Paas F (2018) A narrative review of school-based physical activity for enhancing cognition and learning: the importance of relevancy and integration. Front Psychol 9:2079. https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2018.02079
Meijer A, Königs M, Vermeulen GT, Visscher C, Bosker RJ, Hartman E, Oosterlaan J (2020) The effects of physical activity on brain structure and neurophysiological functioning in children: a systematic review and meta-analysis. Dev Cogn Neurosci 45:100828. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.dcn.2020.100828
Mendelson M, Borowik A, Michallet AS, Perrin C, Monneret D, Faure P et al (2016) Sleep quality, sleep duration and physical activity in obese adolescents: effects of exercise training. Pediatr Obes 11(1):26–32. https://doi.org/10.1111/ijpo.12015
Menon V, Uddin LQ (2010) Saliency, switching, attention and control: a network model of insula function. Brain Struct Funct 214(5–6):655–667. https://doi.org/10.1007/s00429-010-0262-0
Moreau D, Chou E (2019) The acute effect of high-intensity exercise on executive function: a meta-analysis. Perspect Psychol Sci 14(5):734–764. https://doi.org/10.1177/1745691619850568
Moreau D, Tomporowski PD (2018) 10 complex motor activities to enhance cognition. In: Cappuccio ML (ed) Handbook of embodied cognition and sport psychology. The MIT Press, London, pp 273–302
Oberlin LE, Verstynen TD, Burzynska AZ, Voss MW, Prakash RS, Chaddock-Heyman L et al (2016) White matter microstructure mediates the relationship between cardiorespiratory fitness and spatial working memory in older adults. Neuroimage 131:91–101. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.neuroimage.2015.09.053
Opel N, Martin S, Meinert S, Redlich R, Enneking V, Richter M et al (2019) White matter microstructure mediates the association between physical fitness and cognition in healthy, young adults. Sci Rep 9(1):1–9. https://doi.org/10.1038/s41598-019-49301-y
Ortega FB, Ruiz JR, Hurtig-Wennlöf A, Vicente-Rodríguez G, Rizzo NS, Castillo MJ, Sjöström M (2010) Cardiovascular fitness modifies the associations between physical activity and abdominal adiposity in children and adolescents: the European Youth Heart Study. Br J Sports Med 44(4):256–262. https://doi.org/10.1136/bjsm.2008.046391
Parrish A-M, Tremblay MS, Carson S, Veldman SL, Cliff D, Vella S et al (2020) Comparing and assessing physical activity guidelines for children and adolescents: a systematic literature review and analysis. Int J Behav Nutr Phys Act 17(1):16
Peruyero F, Zapata J, Pastor D, Cervelló E (2017) The acute effects of exercise intensity on inhibitory cognitive control in adolescents. Front Psychol 8(921). https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2017.00921
Pesce C, Lakes KD, Stodden DF, Marchetti R (2020) Fostering self-control development with a designed intervention in physical education: a two-year class-randomized trial. Child Dev:1–22. https://doi.org/10.1111/cdev.13445
Pontifex MB, McGowan AL, Chandler MC, Gwizdala KL, Parks AC, Fenn K, Kamijo K (2019) A primer on investigating the after effects of acute bouts of physical activity on cognition. Psychol Sport Exerc 40:1–22
Raghuveer G, Hartz J, Lubans DR, Takken T, Wiltz J, Mietus-Snyder M et al (2020) Cardiorespiratory fitness in youth: an important marker of health: a scientific statement from the American Heart Association. Circulation 142(7):e101–e118. https://doi.org/10.1161/CIR.0000000000000866
Raven F, Van der Zee EA, Meerlo P, Havekes R (2018) The role of sleep in regulating structural plasticity and synaptic strength: implications for memory and cognitive function. Sleep Med Rev 39:3–11. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.smrv.2017.05.002
Reichert FF, Menezes AMB, Wells JCK, Dumith SC, Hallal PC (2009) Physical activity as a predictor of adolescent body fatness. Sports Med 39(4):279–294. https://doi.org/10.2165/00007256-200939040-00002
Ruotsalainen I, Gorbach T, Perkola J, Renvall V, Syväoja HJ, Tammelin TH et al (2020) Physical activity, aerobic fitness, and brain white matter: their role for executive functions in adolescence. Dev Cogn Neurosci 42:100765. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.dcn.2020.100765
Schaeffer DJ, Krafft CE, Schwarz NF, Chi L, Rodrigue AL, Pierce JE et al (2014) An 8-month exercise intervention alters frontotemporal white matter integrity in overweight children. Psychophysiology 51(8):728–733. https://doi.org/10.1111/psyp.12227
Scherf KS, Sweeney JA, Luna B (2006) Brain basis of developmental change in visuospatial working memory. J Cogn Neurosci 18(7):1045–1058. https://doi.org/10.1162/jocn.2006.18.7.1045
Sebastian C, Burnett S, Blakemore S-J (2008) Development of the self-concept during adolescence. Trends Cogn Sci 12(11):441–446
Seeley WW, Menon V, Schatzberg AF, Keller J, Glover GH, Kenna H et al (2007) Dissociable intrinsic connectivity networks for salience processing and executive control. J Neurosci 27(9):2349–2356. https://doi.org/10.1523/jneurosci.5587-06.2007
Sibley BA, Etnier JL (2003) The relationship between physical activity and cognition in children: a meta-analysis. Pediatr Exerc Sci 15(3):243–256. Retrieved from https://journals.humankinetics.com/view/journals/pes/15/3/article-p243.xml
Singh AS, Saliasi E, van den Berg V, Uijtdewilligen L, de Groot RHM, Jolles J et al (2019) Effects of physical activity interventions on cognitive and academic performance in children and adolescents: a novel combination of a systematic review and recommendations from an expert panel. Br J Sports Med 53(10):640–647. https://doi.org/10.1136/bjsports-2017-098136
Smith JJ, Eather N, Harris N, Lubans DR (2020) Exercise for children and adolescents. In: Brusseau T, Fairclough S, Lubans DR (eds) The Routledge handbook of youth physical activity. Routledge, Oxon, pp 738–761
Spreng RN, Sepulcre J, Turner GR, Stevens WD, Schacter DL (2013) Intrinsic architecture underlying the relations among the default, dorsal attention, and frontoparietal control networks of the human brain. J Cogn Neurosci 25(1):74–86. https://doi.org/10.1162/jocn_a_00281
Squire LR, Ojemann JG, Miezin FM, Petersen SE, Videen TO, Raichle ME (1992) Activation of the hippocampus in normal humans: a functional anatomical study of memory. Proc Natl Acad Sci 89(5):1837–1841. https://doi.org/10.1073/pnas.89.5.1837
Stillman CM, Cohen J, Lehman ME, Erickson KI (2016) Mediators of physical activity on neurocognitive function: a review at multiple levels of analysis. Front Hum Neurosci 10:626. https://doi.org/10.3389/fnhum.2016.00626
Stillman CM, Esteban-Cornejo I, Brown B, Bender CM, Erickson KI (2020) Effects of exercise on brain and cognition across age groups and health states. Trends Neurosci 43(7):533–543. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.tins.2020.04.010
Sun X, Li Y, Cai L, Wang Y (2020) Effects of physical activity interventions on cognitive performance of overweight or obese children and adolescents: a systematic review and meta-analysis. Pediatr Res. https://doi.org/10.1038/s41390-020-0941-3
Takacs ZK, Kassai R (2019) The efficacy of different interventions to foster children’s executive function skills: a series of meta-analyses. Psychol Bull 145(7):653–697. https://doi.org/10.1037/bul0000195
Tamnes CK, Østby Y, Walhovd KB, Westlye LT, Due-Tønnessen P, Fjell AM (2010) Intellectual abilities and white matter microstructure in development: a diffusion tensor imaging study. Hum Brain Mapp 31(10):1609–1625. https://doi.org/10.1002/hbm.20962
Telama R (2009) Tracking of physical activity from childhood to adulthood: a review. Obes Facts 3:187–195. https://doi.org/10.1159/000222244
Thomas M, Sing H, Belenky G, Holcomb H, Mayberg H, Dannals R et al (2000) Neural basis of alertness and cognitive performance impairments during sleepiness. I. Effects of 24 h of sleep deprivation on waking human regional brain activity. J Sleep Res 9(4):335–352. https://doi.org/10.1046/j.1365-2869.2000.00225.x
Tomporowski PD, Pesce C (2019) Exercise, sports, and performance arts benefit cognition via a common process. Psychol Bull 145(9):929–951. https://doi.org/10.1037/bul0000200
Travlos AK (2010) High intensity physical education classes and cognitive performance in eighth-grade students: an applied study. Int J Sport Exerc Psychol 8(3):302–311. https://doi.org/10.1080/1612197X.2010.9671955
Tremblay MS, Gray CE, Akinroye KK, Harrington DM, Katzmarzyk PT, Lambert EV et al (2014) Physical activity of children: a global matrix of grades comparing 15 countries. J Phys Act Health 11(Supp 1):113–125
Uddin LQ (2015) Salience processing and insular cortical function and dysfunction. Nat Rev Neurosci 16(1):55–61. https://doi.org/10.1038/nrn3857
Valkenborghs SR, Noetel M, Hillman CH, Nilsson M, Smith JJ, Ortega FB, Lubans DR (2019) The impact of physical activity on brain structure and function in youth: a systematic review. Pediatrics 144(4):e20184032. https://doi.org/10.1542/peds.2018-4032
Vazou S, Webster CA, Stewart G, Candal P, Egan CA, Pennell A, Russ LB (2020) A systematic review and qualitative synthesis resulting in a typology of elementary classroom movement integration interventions. Sports Med 6:1. https://doi.org/10.1186/s40798-019-0218-8
Verburgh L, Konigs M, Scherder EJ, Oosterlaan J (2014) Physical exercise and executive functions in preadolescent children, adolescents and young adults: a meta-analysis. Br J Sports Med 48(12):973–979. https://doi.org/10.1136/bjsports-2012-091441
Voss MW, Chaddock L, Kim JS, VanPatter M, Pontifex MB, Raine LB et al (2011) Aerobic fitness is associated with greater efficiency of the network underlying cognitive control in preadolescent children. Neuroscience 199:166–176. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.neuroscience.2011.10.009
Voss MW, Vivar C, Kramer AF, van Praag H (2013) Bridging animal and human models of exercise-induced brain plasticity. Trends Cogn Sci 17(10):525–544
Wade L, Leahy A, Lubans DR, Smith JJ, Duncan MJ (2020a) A systematic review of cognitive assessment in physical activity research involving children and adolescents. J Sci Med Sport 23(8):740–745. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jsams.2019.12.020
Wade L, Lubans DR, Smith JJ, Duncan MJ (2020b) The impact of exercise environments on adolescents’ cognitive and psychological outcomes: a randomised controlled trial. Psychol Sport Exerc 49:101707. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.psychsport.2020.101707
Walker MP (2009) The role of sleep in cognition and emotion. Ann N Y Acad Sci 1156(1):168–197. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1749-6632.2009.04416.x
Walsh EI, Smith L, Northey J, Rattray B, Cherbuin N (2020) Towards an understanding of the physical activity-BDNF-cognition triumvirate: a review of associations and dosage. Ageing Res Rev 60:101044. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.arr.2020.101044
Wrann CD, White JP, Salogiannnis J, Laznik-Bogoslavski D, Wu J, Ma D et al (2013) Exercise induces hippocampal BDNF through a PGC-1α/FNDC5 pathway. Cell Metab 18(5):649–659. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cmet.2013.09.008
Xue Y, Yang Y, Huang T (2019) Effects of chronic exercise interventions on executive function among children and adolescents: a systematic review with meta-analysis. Br J Sports Med, bjsports-2018-099825. https://doi.org/10.1136/bjsports-2018-099825
Yeo BT, Krienen FM, Eickhoff SB, Yaakub SN, Fox PT, Buckner RL et al (2015) Functional specialization and flexibility in human association cortex. Cereb Cortex 25(10):3654–3672. https://doi.org/10.1093/cercor/bhu217
Yerkes RM, Dodson JD (1908) The relation of strength of stimulus to rapidity of habit-formation. J Comp Neurol Psychol 18(5):459–482. https://doi.org/10.1002/cne.920180503
Author information
Authors and Affiliations
Corresponding author
Editor information
Editors and Affiliations
Rights and permissions
Copyright information
© 2021 The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature Switzerland AG
About this chapter
Cite this chapter
Lubans, D.R., Leahy, A.A., Mavilidi, M.F., Valkenborghs, S.R. (2021). Physical Activity, Fitness, and Executive Functions in Youth: Effects, Moderators, and Mechanisms. In: Andersen, S.L. (eds) Sensitive Periods of Brain Development and Preventive Interventions. Current Topics in Behavioral Neurosciences, vol 53. Springer, Cham. https://doi.org/10.1007/7854_2021_271
Download citation
DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/7854_2021_271
Published:
Publisher Name: Springer, Cham
Print ISBN: 978-3-031-04472-4
Online ISBN: 978-3-031-04473-1
eBook Packages: Biomedical and Life SciencesBiomedical and Life Sciences (R0)