Skip to main content
Springer Nature Link
Log in

Regulation of Excitation by GABA Neurotransmission: Focus on Metabolism and Transport

  • Chapter
  • First Online:
Inhibitory Regulation of Excitatory Neurotransmission

Part of the book series: Results and Problems in Cell Differentiation ((RESULTS,volume 44))

  • 1511 Accesses

Abstract

The vast majority of excitatory synapses in the central nervous system (CNS) utilize glutamate as the neurotransmitter. The level of excitation appears to be under regulatory control by the major inhibitory neurotransmitter GABA, which is synthesized from glutamate by its decarboxylation catalysed by glutamate decarboxylase (GAD). The inactivation of GABA is brought about by high affinity GABA transporters located in the presynaptic GABAergic neurons as well as surrounding astrocytes and subsequently GABA may be metabolized by GABA-transaminase (GABA-T) ultimately allowing the carbon skeleton to enter the tricarboxylic acid (TCA) cycle for oxidative metabolism. In the presynaptic GABAergic neuron, GABA taken up seems, however, preferentially to enter the vesicular GABA pool and hence it is recycled as a transmitter. It has become clear that compounds acting as inhibitors at either the transporters or GABA-T are capable of regulating the inhibitory tonus thus controlling excitation. This has led to development of clinically efficatious antiepileptic drugs. This paper shall review recent progress in targeting these pharmacological entities.

This is a preview of subscription content, log in via an institution to check access.

Access this chapter

Log in via an institution

Subscribe and save

Springer+ Basic
$34.99 /Month
  • Get 10 units per month
  • Download Article/Chapter or eBook
  • 1 Unit = 1 Article or 1 Chapter
  • Cancel anytime
Subscribe now

Buy Now

Chapter
USD 29.95
Price excludes VAT (USA)
  • Available as PDF
  • Read on any device
  • Instant download
  • Own it forever

Tax calculation will be finalised at checkout

Purchases are for personal use only

Institutional subscriptions

Preview

Unable to display preview. Download preview PDF.

Unable to display preview. Download preview PDF.

Similar content being viewed by others

References

  1. Ahn J, Mundigl O, Muth TR, Rudnick G, Caplan MJ (1996) Polarized expression of GABA transporters in Madin-Darby canine kidney cells and cultured hippocampal neurons. J Biol Chem 271:6917–6924

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  2. Ali FE, Bondinell WE, Dandridge PA, Frazee JS, Garvey E, Girard GR, Kaiser C, Ku TW, Lafferty JJ, Moonsammy GI (1985) Orally active and potent inhibitors of gamma-aminobutyric acid uptake. J Med Chem 28:653–660

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  3. Anlezark G, Horton RW, Meldrium BS, Sawaya CB (1976) Anticonvulsant action of ethanolamine-O-sulphate and Di-n-propylacetate and the metabolism of gamma-aminobutyric acid (GABA) in mice with audiogenic seizures. Biochem Pharmacol 25:413–417

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  4. Balazs R, Machiyama Y, Hammond BJ, Julian T, Richter D (1970) The operation of the gamma-aminobutyrate bypath of the tricarboxylic acid cycle in brain tissue in vitro. Biochem J 116:445–461

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  5. Beleboni RO, Carolino RO, Pizzo AB, Castellan-Baldan L, Coutinho-Netto J, dos Santos WF, Coimbra NC (2004) Pharmacological and biochemical aspects of GABAergic neurotransmission: pathological and neuropsychobiological relationships. Cell Mol Neurobiol 24:707–728

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  6. Benveniste H, Drejer J, Schousboe A, Diemer NH (1984) Elevation of the extracellular concentrations of glutamate and aspartate in rat hippocampus during transient cerebral ischemia monitored by intracerebral microdialysis. J Neurochem 43:1369–1374

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  7. Bolvig T, Larsson OM, Pickering DS, Nelson N, Falch E, Krogsgaard-Larsen P, Schousboe A (1999) Action of bicyclic isoxazole GABA analogues on GABA transporters and its relation to anticonvulsant activity. Eur J Pharmacol 375:367–374

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  8. Bonde C, Sarup A, Schousboe A, Gegelashvili G, Zimmer J, Noraberg J (2003) Neurotoxic and neuroprotective effects of the glutamate transporter inhibitor DL-threo-beta-benzyloxyaspartate (DL-TBOA) during physiological and ischemia-like conditions. Neurochem Int 43:371–380

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  9. Borden LA (1996) GABA transporter heterogeneity: pharmacology and cellular localization. Neurochem Int 29:335–356

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  10. Borden LA, Smith KE, Hartig PR, Branchek TA, Weinshank RL (1992) Molecular heterogeneity of the gamma-aminobutyric acid (GABA) transport system. cloning of two novel high affinity GABA transporters from rat brain. J Biol Chem 267:21098–21104

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  11. Borden LA, Dhar TG, Smith KE, Branchek TA, Gluchowski C, Weinshank RL (1994) Cloning of the human homologue of the GABA transporter GAT-3 and identification of a novel inhibitor with selectivity for this site. Recept Chan 2:207–213

    CAS  Google Scholar 

  12. Borden LA, Smith KE, Gustafson EL, Branchek TA, Weinshank RL (1995) Cloning and expression of a betaine/GABA transporter from human brain. J Neurochem 64:977–984

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  13. Choi DW, Rothman SM (1990) The role of glutamate neurotoxicity in hypoxic-ischemic neuronal death. Annu Rev Neurosci 13:171–182

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  14. Choi S, Silverman RB (2002) Inactivation and inhibition of gamma-aminobutyric acid aminotransferase by conformationally restricted vigabatrin analogues. J Med Chem 45:4531–4539

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  15. Clausen RP, Moltzen EK, Perregaard J, Lenz SM, Sanchez C, Falch E, Frolund B, Bolvig T, Sarup A, Larsson OM, Schousboe A, Krogsgaard-Larsen P (2005) Selective inhibitors of GABA uptake: synthesis and molecular pharmacology of 4-N-methylamino-4,5,6,7-tetrahydrobenzo[d]Isoxazol-3-Ol analogues. Bioorg Med Chem 13:895–908

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  16. Conti F, Melone M, De Biasi S, Minelli A, Brecha NC, Ducati A (1998) Neuronal and glial localization of GAT-1, a high-affinity gamma-aminobutyric acid plasma membrane transporter, in human cerebral cortex: with a note on its distribution in monkey cortex. J Comp Neurol 396:51–63

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  17. Conti F, Zuccarello LV, Barbaresi P, Minelli A, Brecha NC, Melone M (1999) Neuronal, Glial, and epithelial localization of gamma-aminobutyric acid transporter 2, a high-affinity gamma-aminobutyric acid plasma membrane transporter, in the cerebral cortex and neighboring structures. J Comp Neurol 409:482–494

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  18. Conti F, Minelli A, Melone M (2004) GABA transporters in the mammalian cerebral cortex: localization, development and pathological implications. Brain Res Brain Res Rev 45:196–212

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  19. Curtis DR, Phillis JW, Watkins JC (1959) Chemical excitation of spinal neurones. Nature 183:611–612

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  20. Danbolt NC (2001) Glutamate uptake. Prog Neurobiol 65:1–105

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  21. Durkin MM, Smith KE, Borden LA, Weinshank RL, Branchek TA, Gustafson EL (1995) Localization of messenger RNAs encoding three GABA transporters in rat brain: an in situ hybridization study. Brain Res Mol Brain Res 33:7–21

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  22. Falch E, Perregaard J, Frølund B, Søkilde B, Buur A, Hansen LM, Frydenvang K, Brehm L, Bolvig T, Larsson OM, Sanchez C, White HS, Schousboe A, Krogsgaard-Larsen P (1999) Selective inhibitors of glial gaba uptake: synthesis, absolute stereochemistry, and pharmacology of the enantiomers of 3-hydroxy-4-amino-4,5,6,7-tetrahydro-1,2-benzisoxazole (Exo-THPO) and analogues. J Med Chem 42:5402–5414

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  23. Guastella J, Nelson N, Nelson H, Czyzyk L, Keynan S, Miedel MC, Davidson N, Lester HA, Kanner BI (1990) Cloning and expression of a rat brain GABA transporter. Science 249:1303–1306

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  24. Iversen LL, Kelly JS (1975) Uptake and Metabolism of gamma-aminobutyric acid by neurones and glial cells. Biochem Pharmacol 24:933–938

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  25. Iversen LL, Neal MJ (1968) The uptake of [3H]GABA by slices of rat cerebral cortex. J Neurochem 15:1141–1149

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  26. Jung MJ, Lippert B, Metcalf BW, Bohlen P, Schechter PJ (1977) Gamma-vinyl GABA (4-amino-hex-5-enoic acid), a new selective irreversible inhibitor of GABA-T: effects on brain GABA metabolism in mice. J Neurochem 29:797–802

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  27. Jursky F, Tamura S, Tamura A, Mandiyan S, Nelson H, Nelson N (1994) Structure, function and brain localization of neurotransmitter transporters. J Exp Biol 196:283–295

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  28. Kanner BI (1994) Sodium-coupled neurotransmitter transport: structure, function and regulation. J Exp Biol 196:237–249

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  29. Kelly KM, Gross RA, MacDonald RL (1990) Valproic acid selectively reduces the low-threshold (T) Calcium current in rat nodose neurons. Neurosci Lett 116:233–238

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  30. Kerwin RW, Taberner PV (1981) The mechanism of action of sodium valproate. Gen Pharmacol 12:71–75

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  31. Koo YK, Nandi D, Silverman RB (2000) The multiple active enzyme species of gamma-aminobutyric acid aminotransferase are not isozymes. Arch Biochem Biophys 374:248–254

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  32. Krogsgaard-Larsen P, Frolund B, Frydenvang K (2000) GABA Uptake inhibitors. design, molecular pharmacology and therapeutic aspects. Curr Pharm Des 6:1193–1209

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  33. Larsson OM, Thorbek P, Krogsgaard-Larsen P, Schousboe A (1981) Effect of homo-beta-proline and other heterocyclic GABA analogues on GABA uptake in neurons and astroglial cells and on GABA receptor binding. J Neurochem 37:1509–1516

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  34. Larsson OM, Johnston GA, Schousboe A (1983) Differences in uptake kinetics of Cis-3-aminocyclohexane carboxylic acid into neurons and astrocytes in primary cultures. Brain Res 260:279–285

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  35. Larsson OM, Gram L, Schousboe I, Schousboe A (1986a) Differential effect of gamma-vinyl GABA and valproate on GABA-transaminase from cultured neurones and astrocytes. Neuropharmacology 25:617–625

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  36. Larsson OM, Griffiths R, Allen IC, Schousboe A (1986b) Mutual inhibition kinetic analysis of gamma-aminobutyric acid, taurine, and beta-alanine high-affinity transport into neurons and astrocytes: evidence for similarity between the taurine and beta-alanine carriers in both cell types. J Neurochem 47:426–432

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  37. Larsson OM, Falch E, Krogsgaard-Larsen P, Schousboe A (1988) Kinetic characterization of inhibition of gamma-aminobutyric acid uptake into cultured neurons and astrocytes by 4,4-diphenyl-3-butenyl derivatives of nipecotic acid and guvacine. J Neurochem 50:818–823

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  38. Lippert B, Metcalf BW, Jung MJ, Casara P (1977) 4-Amino-hex-5-enoic acid, a selective catalytic inhibitor of 4-aminobutyric-acid aminotransferase in mammalian brain. Eur J Biochem 74:441–445

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  39. Liu QR, Mandiyan S, Nelson H, Nelson N (1992) A family of genes encoding neurotransmitter transporters. Proc Natl Acad Sci USA 89:6639–6643

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  40. Liu QR, Lopez-Corcuera B, Mandiyan S, Nelson H, Nelson N (1993) Molecular characterization of four pharmacologically distinct gamma-aminobutyric acid transporters in mouse brain [corrected]. J Biol Chem 268:2106–2112

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  41. Martin DL, Rimvall K (1993) Regulation of gamma-aminobutyric acid synthesis in the brain. J Neurochem 60:395–407

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  42. McLean MJ, MacDonald R L (1986) Sodium valproate, but not ethosuximide, produces use- and voltage-dependent limitation of high-frequency repetitive firing of action potentials of mouse central neurons in cell culture. J Pharmacol Exp Ther 237:1001–1011

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  43. Meldrum BS (1975) Epilepsy and gamma-aminobutyric acid-mediated inhibition. Int Rev Neurobiol 17:1–36

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  44. Minelli A, DeBiasi S, Brecha NC, Zuccarello LV, Conti F (1996) GAT-3, a high-affinity GABA plasma membrane transporter, is localized to astrocytic processes, and it is not confined to the vicinity of gabaergic synapses in the cerebral cortex. J Neurosci 16:6255–6264

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  45. Nelson H, Mandiyan S, Nelson N (1990) Cloning of the human brain GABA transporter. FEBS Lett 269:181–184

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  46. Nicholls D, Attwell D (1990) The release and uptake of excitatory amino acids. Trends Pharmacol Sci 11:462–468

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  47. O'Shea RD, Fodera MV, Aprico K, Dehnes Y, Danbolt NC, Crawford D, Beart PM (2002) Evaluation of drugs acting at glutamate transporters in organotypic hippocampal cultures: new evidence on substrates and blockers in excitotoxicity. Neurochem Res 27:5–13

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  48. Pietrini G, Suh YJ, Edelmann L, Rudnick G, Caplan MJ (1994) The axonal gamma-aminobutyric acid transporter GAT-1 is sorted to the apical membranes of polarized epithelial cells. J Biol Chem 269:4668–4674

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  49. Qiu J, Silverman RB (2000) A new class of conformationally rigid analogues of 4-amino-5-halopentanoic acids, potent inactivators of gamma-aminobutyric acid aminotransferase. J Med Chem 43:706–720

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  50. Qiu J, Pingsterhaus JM, Silverman RB (1999) Inhibition and substrate activity of conformationally rigid vigabatrin analogues with gamma-aminobutyric acid aminotransferase. J Med Chem 42:4725–4728

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  51. Radian R, Bendahan A, Kanner BI (1986) Purification and identification of the functional sodium- and chloride-coupled gamma-aminobutyric acid transport glycoprotein from rat brain. J Biol Chem 261:15437–15441

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  52. Radian R, Ottersen OP, Storm-Mathisen J, Castel M, Kanner BI (1990) Immunocytochemical localization of the GABA transporter in rat brain. J Neurosci 10:1319–1330

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  53. Reimer RJ, Fremeau RT Jr, Bellocchio EE, Edwards RH (2001) The essence of excitation. Curr Opin Cell Biol 13:417–421

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  54. Roberts E (1991) Living systems are tonically inhibited, autonomous optimizers, and disinhibition coupled to variability generation is their major organizing principle: inhibitory command-control at levels of membrane, genome, metabolism, brain, and society. Neurochem Res 16:409–421

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  55. Saito K, Barber R, Wu J, Matsuda T, Roberts E, Vaughn JE (1974) Immunohistochemical localization of glutamate decarboxylase in rat cerebellum. Proc Natl Acad Sci USA 71:269–273

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  56. Sarup A, Larsson OM, Bolvig T, Frølund B, Krogsgaard-Larsen P, Schousboe A (2003a) Effects of 3-hydroxy-4-amino-4,5,6,7-tetrahydro-1,2-benzisoxazol (Exo-THPO) and its n-substituted analogs on GABA transport in cultured neurons and astrocytes and by the four cloned mouse gaba transporters. Neurochem Int 43:445–451

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  57. Sarup A, Larsson OM, Schousboe A (2003b) GABA transporters and GABA-transaminase as drug targets. Curr Drug Target CNS Neurol Disord 2:269–277

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  58. Sarup A, Larsson OM, Schousboe A (2004) Characterization of the substrate-binding site i GABA transporters. In: Schousboe A, Bräuner-Osborne H (eds) Molecular Neuropharmacology: Strategies and Methods. Humana Press Inc., Totowa, pp 175–190

    Google Scholar 

  59. Schechter PJ, Tranier Y, Jung MJ, Bohlen P (1977) Audiogenic seizure protection by elevated brain GABA concentration in mice: effects of gamma-acetylenic GABA and gamma-vinyl GABA, two irreversible GABA-T inhibitors. Eur J Pharmacol 45:319–328

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  60. Schousboe A (1979) Effects of GABA analogues on the high-affinity uptake of GABA in astrocytes in primary cultures. In: Mandel P, De Feudis FV (eds) GABA-Biochemistry and CNS Function. Plenum Publishing Corp, New York, pp 219–237

    Google Scholar 

  61. Schousboe A, Kanner BI (2002) GABA transporters: functional and pharmacological properties. In: Egebjerg J, Schousboe A, Krogsgaard-Larsen P (eds) Glutamate and GABA receptors and transporters: structure, function and pharmacology. Taylor & Francis, London, pp 337–349

    Google Scholar 

  62. Schousboe A, Wu JY, Roberts E (1973) Purification and characterization of the 4-aminobutyrate-2,ketoglutarate transaminase from mouse brain. Biochemistry 12:2868–2873

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  63. Schousboe A, Thorbek P, Hertz L, Krogsgaard-Larsen P (1979) Effects of GABA analogues of restricted conformation on GABA transport in astrocytes and brain cortex slices and on GABA receptor binding. J Neurochem 33:181–189

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  64. Schousboe A, Saito K, Wu JY (1980) Characterization and cellular and subcellular localization of GABA-transaminase. Brain Res Bull 5:71–76

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  65. Schousboe A, Larsson OM, Hertz L, Krogsgaard-Larsen P (1981a) Heterocyclic GABA analogues as new selective inhibitors of astroglial GABA transport. Drug Dev Res 1:115–127

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  66. Schousboe A, Larsson OM, Hertz L, Krogsgaard-Larsen P (1981b) Heterocyclic GABA analogues as selective inhibitors of astroglial GABA uptake. Adv Biochem Psychopharmacol 29:135–141

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  67. Schousboe A, Sarup A, Bak LK, Waagepetersen HS, Larsson OM (2004) Role of astrocytic transport processes in glutamatergic and GABAergic neurotransmission. Neurochem Int 45:521–527

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  68. Tamura S, Nelson H, Tamura A, Nelson N (1995) Short external loops as potential substrate binding site of gamma-aminobutyric acid transporters. J Biol Chem 270:28712–28715

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  69. Toney MD, Pascarella S, De BD (1995) Active site model for gamma-aminobutyrate aminotransferase explains substrate specificity and inhibitor reactivities. Protein Sci 4:2366–2374

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  70. Waagepetersen HS, Sonnewald U, Larsson OM, Schousboe A (1999) Synthesis of vesicular GABA from glutamine involves TCA cycle metabolism in neocortical neurons. J Neurosci Res 57:342–349

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  71. Waagepetersen HS, Sonnewald U, Gegelashvili G, Larsson OM, Schousboe A (2001) Metabolic distinction between vesicular and cytosolic GABA in cultured GABAergic neurons using 13C magnetic resonance spectroscopy. J Neurosci Res 63:347–355

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  72. Waagepetersen HS, Sonnewald U, Schousboe A (2003) Compartmentation of glutamine, glutamate, and GABA metabolism in neurons and astrocytes: functional implications. Neuroscientist 9:398–403

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  73. Waagepetersen HS, Qu H, Sonnewald U, Shimamoto K, Schousboe A (2005) Role of glutamine and neuronal glutamate uptake in glutamate homeostasis and synthesis during vesicular release in cultured glutamatergic neurons. Neurochem Int 47:92–102

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  74. White HS, Sarup A, Bolvig T, Kristensen AS, Petersen G, Nelson N, Pickering DS, Larsson OM, Frølund B, Krogsgaard-Larsen P, Schousboe A (2002) Correlation between anticonvulsant activity and inhibitory action on glial gamma-aminobutyric acid uptake of the highly selective mouse gamma-aminobutyric acid transporter 1 inhibitor 3-hydroxy-4-amino-4,5,6,7-tetrahydro-1,2-benzisoxazole and its n-alkylated analogs. J Pharmacol Exp Ther 302:636–644

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  75. White HS, Watson WP, Hansen SL, Slough S, Perregaard J, Sarup A, Bolvig T, Petersen G, Larsson OM, Clausen RP, Frølund B, Falch E, Krogsgaard-Larsen P, Schousboe A (2005) First demonstration of a functional role for central nervous system betaine/{gamma}-aminobutyric acid transporter (MGAT2) based on synergistic anticonvulsant action among inhibitors of MGAT1 and MGAT2. J Pharmacol Exp Ther 312:866–874

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  76. Yamashita A, Singh SK, Kawate T, Jin Y, Gouaux E (2005) Crystal structure of a bacterial homologue of Na+/Cl–-dependent neurotransmitter transporters. Nature 437:215–223

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  77. Yamauchi A, Uchida S, Kwon HM, Preston AS, Robey RB, Garcia-Perez A, Burg MB, Handler JS (1992) Cloning of a Na(+)- and Cl(-)-dependent betaine transporter that is regulated by hypertonicity. J Biol Chem 267:649–652

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  78. Zhu XM, Ong WY (2004) A light and electron microscopic study of betaine/GABA transporter distribution in the monkey cerebral neocortex and hippocampus. J Neurocytol 33:233–240

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

Download references

Author information

Authors and Affiliations

  1. Department of Pharmacology, Danish University of Pharmaceutical Sciences, Universitetsparken 2, 2100, Copenhagen, Denmark

    Karsten K. Madsen, Orla M. Larsson & Arne Schousboe

Authors
  1. Karsten K. Madsen
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

  2. Orla M. Larsson
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

  3. Arne Schousboe
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

Corresponding author

Correspondence to Arne Schousboe .

Editor information

Mark G. Darlison

Rights and permissions

Reprints and permissions

Copyright information

© 2007 Springer-Verlag Berlin Heidelberg

About this chapter

Cite this chapter

Madsen, K.K., Larsson, O.M., Schousboe, A. (2007). Regulation of Excitation by GABA Neurotransmission: Focus on Metabolism and Transport. In: Darlison, M.G. (eds) Inhibitory Regulation of Excitatory Neurotransmission. Results and Problems in Cell Differentiation, vol 44. Springer, Berlin, Heidelberg. https://doi.org/10.1007/400_2007_036

Download citation

Publish with us

Policies and ethics