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A process model for friction stir welding of age hardening aluminum alloys

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Abstract

In the present investigation, a numerical three-dimensional (3-D) heat flow model for friction stir welding (FSW) has been developed, based on the method of finite differences. The algorithm, which is implemented in MATLAB 5.2, is provided with a separate module for calculation of the microstructure evolution and the resulting hardness distribution. The process model is validated by comparison with in-situ thermocouple measurements and experimental hardness profiles measured at specific time intervals after welding to unravel the strength recovery during natural aging. Furthermore, the grain structure within the plastically deformed region of the as-welded materials has been characterized by means of the electron backscattered diffraction (EBSD) technique in the scanning electron microscope (SEM). Some practical applications of the process model are described toward the end of the article.

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Abbreviations

A 0 :

material constant related to the potency of the heterogeneous nucleation sites in actual alloy (J mol−1)

a :

thermal diffusivity (m2 s−1)

C o :

total alloy content (wt pct)

C o m :

matrix solute content in stabilised base material (wt pct)

C p :

solute concentration within the particle (wt pct)

D 0 :

diffusion coefficient (m2 s−1)

d s :

subgrain diameter (m)

dx, dy, dz :

discretization parameters in x, y, and z directions (m)

f 0 :

initial volume fraction of precipitates in base material

f m :

maximum possible volume fraction of hardening precipitates that can form at absolute zero

HV max :

hardness in the temper condition (VPN)

HV min :

hardness in the fully reverted condition (VPN)

M :

interfacial torque (Nm)

N :

rotational speed (rot·s−1)

P :

pressure (Pa)

P(r) :

pressure distribution across the interface (Pa)

Q :

activation energy for diffusion (J mol−1)

Q d :

activation energy for diffusion of Mg in Al (J mol−1)

Q s :

activation energy for diffusion of the less mobile constitutive atom of the precipitates (J mol−1)

q 0 :

net power (W)

R :

tool radius (m)

r :

two-dimensional radius vector (m)

r 0 :

initial particle radius (m)

S 0max :

hardness or strength in age-hardened base material (VPN or Pa)

S 0min :

hardness or strength in fully reverted condition (VPN or Pa)

T :

temperature (°C or K)

T max :

maximum temperature (°C or K)

T s :

peak temperature (°C or K)

T s :

phase boundary solvus temperature (°C or K)

t :

time (s)

t* r1 :

maximum hold time for complete dissolution at reference temperature (s)

t* r2 :

time taken to precipitate a certain fraction of β′-Mg2Si at a chosen reference temperature (s)

v :

welding speed (m s−1)

V :

unit volume (m3)

V m :

molar volume (m3 mol−1)

x :

x-axis/welding direction (m)

y :

y-axis/transverse direction (m)

Z h :

Zener-Hollomon parameter (s−1)

z :

z-axis/thickness direction

ρc :

volume heat capacity (J m−3 °C−1)

ɛ :

strain rate (s−1)

γ :

interfacial energy (J m−2)

μ :

friction coefficient

ω :

angular velocity (rad/s)

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Author information

Authors and Affiliations

  1. the Material Command, Analytical Laboratory, Royal Norwegian Airforce, N-2027, Kjeller, Norway

    Ø. Frigaard (Senior Engineer Metallurgist)

  2. Department of Materials Technology and Electrochemistry, The Norwegian University of Science and Technology, N-7491, Trondheim, Norway

    Ø. Grong (Professor of Metallurgy)

  3. Hydro Aluminium Maritime AS, N-4262, Avaldsnes, Norway

    O. T. Midling (Senior Project Manager)

Authors
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Frigaard, Ø., Grong, Ø. & Midling, O.T. A process model for friction stir welding of age hardening aluminum alloys. Metall Mater Trans A 32, 1189–1200 (2001). https://doi.org/10.1007/s11661-001-0128-4

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