Skip to main content
SpringerLink
Log in

The origins of empathic concern

  • Published:
Motivation and Emotion Aims and scope Submit manuscript

Abstract

Recent developments in research cast doubt on early conceptions of young children as primarily egocentric and uncaring of others' needs. Studies reviewed indicate a broad range of social competencies children bring to their interpersonal relationships. As early as 2 years of age, they show (a) the cognitive capacity to interpret, in simple ways, the physical and psychological states of others, (b) the emotional capacity to experience, affectively, the state of others, and (c) the behavioral repertoire that permits the possibility of attempts to alleviate discomfort in others. Both temperament and environment may contribute to individual differences in concern for others. Early socialization experiences that lead to adaptive and maladaptive patterns of responsiveness to others' needs are described. Examples of environmental risk conditions include parental depression, marital discord, parental maltreatment. Implications of this work for broadening existing conceptualizations of empathy and related prosocial orientations are addressed.

This is a preview of subscription content, log in via an institution to check access.

Access this article

Log in via an institution

Price excludes VAT (USA)
Tax calculation will be finalised during checkout.

Instant access to the full article PDF.

Institutional subscriptions

Similar content being viewed by others

References

  • American Psychiatric Association (1987).Diagnostic and statistical manual of mental disorders (3rd ed., revised)., Washington, DC: Author.

    Google Scholar 

  • Amsterdam, B. (1972). Mirror self-image reactions before age two.Developmental Psychology, 8 297–305.

    Google Scholar 

  • Barnett, M. A., McMinimy, V., Flouer, G., & Masbad, I. (1987). Adolescent's evaluations of peers' motives for helping.Journal of Youth and Adolescence, 16 579–586.

    Google Scholar 

  • Batson, C. D., Batson, J. G., Griffitt, C. A., Barrientos, S., Brandt, J. R., Spreugelmeyer, P. & Bayly, M. J. (1989). Negative-state relief and the empathy-altruism hypothesis.Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 56 922–933.

    Google Scholar 

  • Batson, C. D., Dyck, J. L., Brandt, J. R., Batson, J. G., Powell, A. L., McMaster, M. R., & Griffith, C. A. (1988). Five studies testing two new egoistic alternatives to the empathy-altruism hypothesis.Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 55 52–77.

    Google Scholar 

  • Batson, C. D., & Shaw, L. L. (in press). Evidence for altruism: Toward a pluralism of prosocial motives.Psychology Inquiry.

  • Beardslee, W., & Podorefsky, D. (1988). Resilient adolescents whose parents have serious affective and other psychiatric disorders: Importance of self-understanding and relationships.American Journal of Psychiatry, 145 63–69.

    Google Scholar 

  • Beardslee, W. R., Schultz, L. H., & Selman, R. L., (1987). Level of social-cognitive development, adoptive functioning and DSM-III diagnoses in adolescent offspring of parents with affective disorders: Implications for the development of the capacity for mutuality.Developmental Psychology, 23 807–815.

    Google Scholar 

  • Bertenthal, B. I., & Fischer, K. W. (1978). the development of self-recognition in the infant.Developmental Psychology, 14 44–50.

    Google Scholar 

  • Bloom, L. P., & Hood, L. (1975). Structure and variation in child language.Monographs of the Society for Research in Child Development, 40 (3–4, serial no. 161).

  • Bretherton, I., Fritz, J., Zahn-Waxler, C., & Ridgeway, D. (1986). The acquisition and development of emotion language: A functionalist perspective.Child Development, 57 529–548.

    Google Scholar 

  • Brothers, L. (1989). A biological perspective on empathy.The American Journal of Psychiatry, 146 10–19.

    Google Scholar 

  • Bruner, J. S. (1972). The nature and uses of immaturity.American Psychologist, 27 1–22.

    Google Scholar 

  • Butterworth, G. (1980). A discussion of some issues raised by Piaget's concept of childhood egocentrism. In M. V. Cox (Ed.),Are young children egocentric? (pp. 17–40). York, England: Batsford Academic and Educational.

    Google Scholar 

  • Campos, J. J., Barrett, K. C., Lamb, M. E., Goldsmith, H. H., & Stenberg, C. (1983). Socio-emotional development. In P. H. Mussen (Ed.),Handbook of child psychology (4th ed., pp. 783–915) New York: Wiley.

    Google Scholar 

  • Caplan, M. Z., & Hay, D. F. (1989). Preschoolers' responses to peers' distress and beliefs about bystander intervention.Journal of Child Psychology and Psychiatry, 30 231–242.

    Google Scholar 

  • Carlson, M., & Miller, N. (1987). Examination of the relation between negative mood and helping.Psychological Bulletin, 102 91–108.

    Google Scholar 

  • Cialdini, R. B., Schaller, M., Houlihan, D., Arps, K., Fultz, J., & Beaman, A. L. (1987). Empathy-based helping: Is it selflessly motivated?Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 52 749–758.

    Google Scholar 

  • Cicchetti, D., & Schneider-Rosen, K. (1986). An organizational approach to childhood depression. In M. Rutter, C. Izard, & P. Read (Eds.),Depression in young people: Clinical and developmental perspectives. New York: Guilford Press.

    Google Scholar 

  • Cohn, J. F., & Tronick, E. Z. (1983). Three-month-old infants' reaction to simulated maternal depression.Child Development, 54 185–193.

    Google Scholar 

  • Cohn, J. K., Campbell, S. B., Matias, R., & Hopkins, J. (1990). Face-to-face interactions of postpartum depressed and non-depressed mother-infant pairs at 2 months.Developmental Psychology, 26 15–23.

    Google Scholar 

  • Cooley, C. H. (1926). The roots of social knowledge.American Journal of Sociology, 32 59–79.

    Google Scholar 

  • Cummings, E. M., Hollenbeck, B., Iannotti, R., Radke-Yarrow, M., & Zahn-Waxler, C. (1986). Early organization of altruism and aggression: Developmental patterns and individual difference. In C. Zahn-Waxler, E. M. Cummings, & R. Iannotti (Eds.),Altruism and aggression: Biological and social origins (pp. 165–188). New York, London, & Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.

    Google Scholar 

  • Cummings, E. M., Zahn-Waxler, C., & Radke-Yarrow, M. (1981). Young children's responses to expressions of anger and affection by others in the family.Child Development, 52 1274–1282.

    Google Scholar 

  • Cummings, E. M., Zahn, Waxler, C., & Radke-Yarrow, M. (1984). Developmental changes in children's reactions to anger in the home.Journal of Child Psychology and Psychiatry and Allied Disciplines, 25 63–74.

    Google Scholar 

  • Darwin, C. (1872).The expression of the emotions in man and animal. London: John Murray.

    Google Scholar 

  • Dawkins, R. (1976).The selfish gene. Oxford, England: Oxford University Press.

    Google Scholar 

  • Eckerman, C. O., Whatley, J. L., & Kutz, S. L. (1975). Growth of social play with peers during the second year of life.Developmental Psychology, 11 42–49.

    Google Scholar 

  • Eisenberg, N., & Lennon, R. (1980). Altruism and the assessment of empathy in the preschool years.Child Development, 51 552–557.

    Google Scholar 

  • Eisenberg, N., Fabes, R. A., Miller, P. A., Fultz, J., Shell, R., Mathy, R. M., & Reno, R. R. (1989a). Relation of sympathy and personal distress to prosocial behavior: A multi-method study.Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 57 55–66.

    Google Scholar 

  • Eisenberg, N., Fabes, R. A., Shaller, M., & Miller, P. A. (1989b). Sympathy and personal distress: Development, gender differences, and interrelations of indexes. In N. Eisenberg (Ed.),Empathy and related emotion responses (New Directions in Child Development, No. 44, pp. 107–126). San Francisco: Jossey-Bass.

    Google Scholar 

  • Eisenberg, N., & Strayer, J. (1987).Empathy and its development. Cambridge, England, & New York: Cambridge University Press.

    Google Scholar 

  • Emde, R., Johnson, W., & Easterbrooks, M. A. (1987). The do's and don'ts of early moral development: Psychoanalytic tradition and current research. In J. Kagan, & S. Lamb (Eds.),The emergence of morality in young children (pp. 245–276). Chicago: University of Chicago Press.

    Google Scholar 

  • Emery, R. E. (1982). Interparent conflict and the children of discord and divorce.Psychological Bulletin, 92, 310–330.

    Google Scholar 

  • Fabes, R. A., Eisenberg, N., & Miller, P. (1990). Maternal correlates of children's vicarious emotional responsiveness.Developmental Psychology, 26, 639–648.

    Google Scholar 

  • Field, T., Woodson, R., Greenberg, R., & Cohen, D. (1982). Discrimination and imitation of facial expressions by neonates.Science, 218, 179–181.

    Google Scholar 

  • Freud, S. (1958).Civilization and its discontents. New York: Doubleday Anchor Books.

    Google Scholar 

  • Gladstein, G. A. (1984). The historical roots of contemporary empathy research.Journal of the History off the Behavioral Sciences, 20, 38–59.

    Google Scholar 

  • Haviland, J. M., & Lelivica, M. (1987). The induced affect response: 10-week-old infants' responses to three emotion expressions.Developmental Psychology, 23, 97–104.

    Google Scholar 

  • Haynes-Seman, C. (1987). Developmental origins of moral masochism: A failure-to-thrive toddler's interactions with mother.Child Abuse and Neglect, 11, 319–330.

    Google Scholar 

  • Hoffman, M. L. (1975). Developmental synthesis of affect and cognition and its interplay for altruistic motivation.Developmental Psychology, 11, 607, 622.

    Google Scholar 

  • Hoffman, M. (1982). Development of prosocial motivation: Empathy and guilt. In N. Eisenberg (Ed.),The development of prosocial behavior (pp. 281–313). New York: Academic Press.

    Google Scholar 

  • Howes, C., & Eldridge, R. (1985). Responses off abused, neglected and nonmaltreated children to the behaviors of their peers.Journal of Applied Developmental Psychology, 6, 261–270.

    Google Scholar 

  • Howes, C., & Parver, J. (1987). Toddlers' responses to the distress of their peers.Journal of applied Developmental Psychology, 8, 441–452.

    Google Scholar 

  • Izard, C. E. (1977).Human emotion. New York: Plenum Press.

    Google Scholar 

  • Kagan, J., & Lamb, S. (1987).The emergence of morality in young children. Chicago: University of Chicago Press.

    Google Scholar 

  • Klimes-Dougan, B., & Kistner, J. (1990). Physically abused preschoolers' responses to peers' distress.Developmental Psychology 26, 599–602.

    Google Scholar 

  • Koestner, R., Franz, C., & Weinberger, J. (1990). The family origins of empathic concern: A 26-year longitudinal study.Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 58, 709–717.

    Google Scholar 

  • Lewis, M., Sullivan, M., Stanger, C., & Weiss, M. (1989). Self development and self-conscious emotions.Child Development, 60, 146–156.

    Google Scholar 

  • MacLean, P. D. (1985). Brain evolution relating to family, play, and the separation call.Archives of General Psychiatry, 42, 405–417.

    Google Scholar 

  • Mahler, M. S., Pine, F., & Bergman, A. (1975).The psychological birth of the human infant: Symbiosis and individuation. New York: Basic Books.

    Google Scholar 

  • Main, M., & George, C. (1985). Response of abused and disadvantaged toddlers to distress in playmates: A study in the day care setting.Developmental Psychology, 21, 407–412.

    Google Scholar 

  • Main, M., & Goldwyn, R. (1984). Predicting rejection of her infant from mother's representation of her own experience: Implications for the abused-abusing intergenerational cycle.Child Abuse and Neglect, 8, 203–217.

    Google Scholar 

  • Matas, L., Arend, R. A., & Sroufe, L. A. (1978). Continuity of adaptation in the second year: The relationship between quality of attachment and later competence.Child Development, 49, 547–556.

    Google Scholar 

  • Mathews, K. A., Batson, C. D., Horn, J., & Rosenman, R. H. (1981). Principles in his nature which interest him in the fortune of others: The heritability of empathic concern for others.Journal of Personality, 49, 237–247.

    Google Scholar 

  • McCall, R. B. (1979). Qualitative transitions in behavioral development in the first three years. In M. H. Bornstein & W. Kessen (Eds.),Psychological development in infancy. New York: Erlbaum.

    Google Scholar 

  • Mead, C. H. (1934).Mind, self and society. Chicago: University of Chicago Press.

    Google Scholar 

  • Meltzoff, A. N., & Moore, M. K. (1977). Imitation of facial and manual gestures by human neonates.Science, 198, 75–78.

    Google Scholar 

  • Miller, P. A., & Eisenberg, N. (1988). The relation of empathy to aggressive and externalizing/antisocial behavior.Psychological Bulletin, 103, 324–344.

    Google Scholar 

  • Nicolich, L. (1977). Beyond sensorimotor intelligence: Assessment of symbolic maturity through analyses of pretend play.Merrill-Palmer Quarterly, 23, 89–99.

    Google Scholar 

  • Piaget, J. (1962).Play, dreams and imitation in childhood. New York: Norton.

    Google Scholar 

  • Piaget, J. (1965).The moral judgment of the child. New York: Harcourt, Brace. (Original work published in 1932).

    Google Scholar 

  • Radke-Yarrow, M., & Zahn-Waxler, C. (1976). Dimensions and correlates of prosocial behavior in young children.Child Development, 47, 118–125.

    Google Scholar 

  • Radke-Yarrow, M., & Zahn-Waxler, C. (1984). Roots, motives, and patterning in children's prosocial behavior. In E. Staub, K. D. Bartal, J. Karylowski, & J. Raykowski (Eds.),The development and maintenance of prosocial behavior: International perspectives on positive morality. New York: Plenum Press.

    Google Scholar 

  • Radke-Yarrow, M., Zahn-Waxler, C., & Chapman, M. (1983). Children's prosocial dispositions and behavior. In P. H. Mussen, & E. M. Hetherington (Eds.),Handbook of child psychology: Socialization, personality, and social development (Vol. 4, pp. 469–545), New York: Wiley.

    Google Scholar 

  • Rheingold, H. L., & Emery, G. N. (1986). The nurturant acts of very young children. In D. Olweus, J. Block, & M. Radke-Yarrow (Eds.),The development of anti- and prosocial behavior. New York: Academic Press.

    Google Scholar 

  • Rheingold, H., Hay, D., & West, M. (1976). Sharing in the second year of life.Child Development, 47, 1148–1158.

    Google Scholar 

  • Ross, H. S., & Goldman, B. D. (1977). Establishing new social relations in infancy. In T. Alloway, L. Kramer, & P. Plinerf (Eds.),Advances in the study of communication and affect: Vol. 3. Attachment behavior. New York: Plenum Press.

    Google Scholar 

  • Rushton, J. P., Fulker, D. W., Neale, M. C., Nias, D. L. B., & Eysenck, H. J. (1986). Altruism and aggression: The heritability of individual differences.Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 50, 1192–1198.

    Google Scholar 

  • Rushton, J. P., Russell, R. J. H., & Wells, P. A. (1984). Genetic similarity theory: Beyond kin selection.Behavior Genetics, 14, 179–193.

    Google Scholar 

  • Sagi, A., & Hoffman, M. L. (1976). Empathic distress in the newborn.Developmental Psychology, 12, 175–176.

    Google Scholar 

  • Shott, S. (1979). Emotion and social life: A symbolic interactionist analysis.American Journal of Sociology, 84, 1317–1334.

    Google Scholar 

  • Simner, M. L. (1971). Newborn's responses to the cry of another infant.Developmental Psychology, 5, 136–150.

    Google Scholar 

  • Stern, D. (1985).The interpersonal world of the infant. New York: Basic Books.

    Google Scholar 

  • Stipek, D. J., Gralinski, J. H., & Kopp, C. B. (1990). Self-concept development in the toddler years.Developmental Psychology, 26, 972–977.

    Google Scholar 

  • Strayer, J., & Roberts, W. (1989). Children's empathy an role taking: Child and parental factors and relations to prosocial behavior.Journal of Applied Developmental Psychology, 10, 227–239.

    Google Scholar 

  • Sullivan, H. S. (1947).Conceptions of modern psychiatry. Washington, DC: White Foundation.

    Google Scholar 

  • Termine, N. T., & Izard, C. E. (1988). Infants' responses to their mothers' expressions of joy and sadness.Developmental Psychology, 24, 223–229.

    Google Scholar 

  • Teti, D. M., & Ablard, K. A. (1991). Security of attachment and infant-sibling relationships: A laboratory study.Child Development.

  • Trevarthen, C. (1989). Origins and directions for the concept of infant intersubjectivity.Society for Research in Child Development, Newsletter.

  • Watson, M., & Fischer, K. (1977). A developmental sequence of agent use in late infancy.Child Development, 48, 828–836.

    Google Scholar 

  • Weisenfeld, A. R., Whitman, P. B., & Malatesta, C. Z. (1984). Individual differences among adult women in sensitivity to infants: Evidence in support of an empathy construct.Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 46, 118–124.

    Google Scholar 

  • Wilson, E. O. (1975).Sociobiology: The new synthesis. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press.

    Google Scholar 

  • Yarrow, M., Scott, P., & Waxler, C. (1973). Learning concern for other.Developmental Psychology, 8, 240–260.

    Google Scholar 

  • Zahn-Waxler, C. Cole, P., & Barrett, K. C. (1991). Guilt and empathy: Sex differences and implications for the development of depression. In K. Dodge & J. Garber (Eds.),Emotion regulation and dysregulation. New York: Cambridge University Press.

    Google Scholar 

  • Zahn-Waxler, C., & Kochanska, G. (1990). The origins of guilt. In R. Thompson (Ed.),Socioemotional development (pp. 183–258). Lincoln: Nebraska Symposium on Motivation, University of Nebraska Press.

    Google Scholar 

  • Zahn-Waxler, C., Kochanska, G. Krupnick, J., & McKnew, D. (1990). Patterns of guilt in children of depressed and well mothers.Developmental Psychology, 26, 51–59.

    Google Scholar 

  • Zahn-Waxler, C., & Radke-Yarrow, M. (1982). The development of altruism: Alternative research strategies. In N. Eisenberg (Ed.),The development of prosocial behavior (pp. 109–137). New York: Academic Press.

    Google Scholar 

  • Zahn-Waxler, C. Radke-Yarrow, M., & King, R. A. (1979). Child-rearing and children's prosocial initiations toward victims of distress.Child Development, 50, 319–330.

    Google Scholar 

  • Zahn-Waxler, C., Radke-Yarrow, M., Chapman, M., & Wagner, E. (1990).The development of concern for others. Unpublished manuscript.

  • Zahn-Waxler, C., Robinson, J., & Emde, R. (1991). Thedevelopment and heritability of empathy. Poster presentation, Society for Research in Child Development, Seattle, WA, April.

    Google Scholar 

  • Zahn-Waxler, C., & Smith, K. D. (in press). The development of prosocial behavior. In V. B. Van Hasselt and M. Herson (Eds.),Handbook of Social Development: A lifespan perspective, New York: Plenum Press.

Download references

Author information

Authors and Affiliations

  1. Laboratory of Developmental Psychology,Building 15-K, National Institute of Mental Health, 20892, Bethesda, Maryland

    Carolyn Zahn-Waxler & Marian Radke-Yarrow

Authors
  1. Carolyn Zahn-Waxler
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

  2. Marian Radke-Yarrow
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

Additional information

This work was supported by the National Institute of Mental Health and the John D. and Catherine T. MacArthur Foundation, Research Network on the Transition from Infancy to Early Childhood. Portions of this work were presented at an invited symposium on Empathy in Infancy and Later Development, American Association for the Advancement of Sciences, New Orleans, 1990. We would like to thank Jean Mayo for manuscript preparation.

Rights and permissions

Reprints and permissions

About this article

Cite this article

Zahn-Waxler, C., Radke-Yarrow, M. The origins of empathic concern. Motiv Emot 14, 107–130 (1990). https://doi.org/10.1007/BF00991639

Download citation

  • Issue Date:

  • DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/BF00991639

Keywords

Search

Navigation