Abstract
Three traditions exist in the Western world for understanding the origins of disturbances of consciousness and accompanying bizarre behavior—the spiritist, the medical, and the psychological—within which three influential paradigms for understanding mental illness have evolved.
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Notes and References
Adam Crabtree. Animal Magnetism, Early Hypnotism and Psychical Research, 1766–1925: An Annotated Bibliography. White Plains, NY: Kraus International, 1988.
See Werner Leibrand. Romantische Medizin. Hamburg: H. Goverts, 1937, and Die speculative Medizin der Romantik. Hamburg: Claassen, 1956; Rudolph Tischner and Karl Bittel. Mesmer und sein Problem. Stuttgart: Hippokrates-Verlag, Marquardt & Co., 1941; Dominique Barrucand. Histoire de l’hypnose en France. Paris: Presses Universitaires de France, 1967; Eric Dingwall (editor). Abnormal Hypnotic Phenomena. 4 vols. New York: Barnes and Noble, 1967–1968; Robert Darnton. Mesmerism and the End of the Enlightenment in France. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 1968; Robert Amadou (editor). Franz Anton Mesmer. Le magnétisme animal. Oeuvres publiées par Robert Amadou avec des commentaires et des notes de Frank Pattie et Jean Vinchon. Paris: Payot, 1971.
Henri Ellenberger. The Discovery of the Unconscious. New York: Basic Books, 1970. More about Ellenberger’s ideas in this area may be found in Mark S. Micale (editor). Beyond the Unconscious: Essays of Henri Ellenberger in the History of Psychiatry. Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, 1993.
Franklin Rausky. Mesmer: ou la révolution thérapeutique. Paris: Payot, 1977; Leon Chertok and Raymond De Saussure. The Therapeutic Revolution from Mesmer to Freud. New York: Brunner/Mazel, 1979; Jean-Roch Laurence and Campbell Perry. Hypnosis, Will and Memory: A Psycho-legal History. New York: Guilford Press, 1988.
Alan Gauld. A History of Hypnotism. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1992.
Crabtree 1988.
Adam Crabtree. From Mesmer to Freud: Magnetic Sleep and the Roots of Psychological Healing. New Haven, CT: Yale University Press, 1993.
For biographical information on Mesmer, see Justinus Kerner. Franz Anton Mesmer aus Schwaben. Frankfurt: Literarische Anstalt, 1856; Carl Kiesewetter. Franz Anton Mesmer’s Leben und Lehre. Leipzig: Max Spohr, 1893; Rudolph Tischner. Franz Anton Mesmer: Leben, Werk, und Wirkungen. Munich: Münchner Druke, 1928; Margaret Goldsmith. Franz Anton Mesmer: The History of an Idea. London: Arthur Barker, 1934; Jean Vinchon. Mesmer et son secret. Paris: Amédée Legrand, 1936; D. M. Walmsley. Anton Mesmer. London: Robert Hale, 1967; Vincent Buranelli. The Wizard from Vienna. New York: Coward, McCann & Geoghegan, 1975; James Wyckoff. Franz Anton Mesmer: Between God and Devil. Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Prentice-Hall, 1975; Hans Peter Treichler. Die magnetische Zeit: Alltag und Lebensgefühl im frühen 19. Jahrhundert. Zürich: Schweizer, 1988; Anneliese Ego. “Animalischer Magnetismus” order “Aufklärung”: Eine mentalitätsgeschichtliche Studie zum Konflikt um ein Heilkonzept im 18.Jahrhundert. Würzburg: Königshausen & Neumann, 1991; and Frank A. Pattie. Mesmer and Animal Magnetism: A Chapter in the History of Medicine. Hamilton, New York: Edmonston Publishing, 1994.
For Mesmer’s first complete formulation of his concept of animal magnetism, see his Mémoire sur la découverte du magnétisme animal. Geneva and Paris: Didot le jeune, 1779.
Mémoire de F. A. Mesmer sur ses découvertes. Paris: Fuchs, 1799; Allgemeine Erläuterungen über den Magnetismus und den Somnambulismus. Halle and Berlin: Hallischen Waisenhauses, 1812.
Rapport des commissaires chargés par le Roi de l’examen du magnétisme animal. (Paris: Imprimerie royale, 1784) and Rapport des commissaires de la Société Royale de Médecine nommés par le Roi pour faire l’examen du magnétisme animal. (Paris: Imprimerie royale, 1784).
Antoine Laurent de Jussieu. Rapport de l’un des commissaires chargés par le Roi, de l’examen du magnétisme animal. Paris: Veuve Harissart, 1784.
Puységur, Armand Marie Jacques de Chastenet, Marquis de. Mémoires pour servir à l’histoire et à l’établissement du magnétisme animal. Paris: Dentu, 1784, pp. 28–29.
Puységur, pp. 33–34.
Puységur, p. 180.
Puységur, p. 28.
Puységur, p. 36.
Puységur, p. 30.
Puységur, p. 35.
Puységur, p. 25.
Puységur, pp. 193 and 230.
Puységur. Recherches, expériences et observations physiologiques sur l’homme dans l’état de somnambulisme naturel, et dans le somnambulisme provoqué par l’act magnétique. Paris: J. G. Dentu, 1811, p. 73 and following.
Puységur 1784, p. 17, and Du magnétisme animal considéré dans ses rapports avec diverses branches de la physique générale, second edition. Paris: J. G. Dentu, 1820, pp. 150 and following.
Puységur 1811, p. 14.
Puységur 1820, pp. 155–156.
Puységur 1784, p. 27; Puységur 1785, pp. 214–216; Puységur 1811, p. 4.
Puységur 1784, p. 39.
Puységur 1784, pp. 182–183; Puységur 1820, pp. 164–165.
Puységur 1784, p. 35.
Puységur 1784, p. 28.
Puységur 1784, p. 36.
Puységur. Les fous, les insensés, les maniaques et les frénétiques. Ne seraient-ils que des somnambules désordonnés? Paris: J. G. Dentu, 1812.
Puységur 1812, p. 52.
Puységur 1812, p. 54.
In the course of treating Alexandre, Puységur took him to see Philippe Pinel in Paris. Pinel told him that he had read his writings with interest and found much there that was familiar and worthy of attention, but, not knowing enough about animal magnetism, he could not make any judgment on that matter. Puységur magnetized Alexandre, and Pinel spoke with him in the somnambulistic state. Pinel then invited Puységur on his return trip to Paris to see the mental patients under his care at the hospital and test whether magnetism could have curative effects on any of them. Puységur expressed his gratitude for the invitation, but he cautioned Pinel that he believed his method would only work for those disturbed individuals whose condition had not degenerated to total derangement (Puységur 1812, pp. 81–83).
Puységur 1813, p. 39.
Comte de Lutzelbourg. Extrait des journaux d’un magnétiseur attaché la société des amis réunis de Strasbourg, second edition. Strasbourg: Lorenz & Schouler, 1786, p. 47.
Charles de Villers. Le magnétiseur amoureux, par un membre de la société harmonique du régiment de Metz [Geneva]. Besançon: no publisher, 1787.
Puységur 1784, p. 90.
J. P. F. Deleuze. Histoire critique du magnétisme animal. Paris: Mame, 1813. 2 vol.
Deleuze. Instruction pratique sur le magnétisme animal, suivie d’une lettre écrite à l’auteur par un médecin étranger. Paris: Dentu, 1825.
Deleuze 1813, volume 1, p. 176.
Deleuze 1813, volume 1, pp. 180–181.
Deleuze 1850, p. 83; Practical Instruction in Animal Magnetism, revised American edition. New York: D. Appleton, 1850. Translation of the Instruction pratique.
See the examination of Deleuze’s writings on “transference” and the unconscious in Chertok and de Saussure 1979, pp. 18–23 and 159–160.
Alexandre Bertrand. Traité du somnambulisme, et des différentes modifications qu’il presente. Paris: J. G. Dentu, 1823.
Bertrand, p. 233, note.
Aubin Gauthier. Histoire du somnambulisme. 2 volumes. Paris: Félix Mateste, 1842, volume 2, p. 310.
Baron Jules Denis Du Potet de Sennevoy. Expériences publique sur le magnétisme animal faites à l’Hôtel Dieu de Paris, second edition. Paris: Bechet, Dentu, and the Author, 1826, pp. 30–41.
Pierre Foissac. Mémoire sur le magnétisme animal. Paris: Didot le jeune, 1825.
Pierre Foissac. Rapports et discussions de l’Académie Royale de Médecine sur le magnétisme animal. Paris: J. B. Baillière, 1833.
For a discussion of magnetic somnambulism as an analgesic in surgery, see Crabtree 1993, pp. 135–144.
Gauthier, volume 2, pp. 378–381, and Dingwall 1967, volume 1, pp. 89–90.
H. R. Paul Schröder. Geschichte des Lebensmagnetismus und des Hypnotismus. Vom Uranfang bis auf den heutigen Tag. Leipzig: Arwed Strauch, 1899, p. 342; Emil Schneider. Der animale Magnetismus. Zürich: Konrad Lampert, 1950, p. 251; Puységur 1820, pp. 235–246.
Magnetische Magazin für Niederdeutschland, edited by J. H. Cramer. Others were Der Magnetist in Frankfort, Archiv für Magnetismus und Somnambulismus in Strasburg, Beobachter des thierischen Magnetismus und Somnambulismus, also in Strasburg, and in 1788, Briefe über die Phänomene des thierischen Magnetismus in Leipzig.
Arnold Wienholt. Beitrag zu den Erfahrungen über den thierischen Magnetismus. Hamburg: no publisher, 1787.
Wienholt. 1802–1806. Heilkraft des thierischen Magnetismus nach eigenen Beobachtungen. Lemgo: Meyer, 1802–1806. 3 vols.
Eberhard Gmelin. Ueber den thierischen Magnetismus. Tübingen. Heerbrandt, 1787; Materialien für die Anthropologie. Tübingen: Cotta, 1791–1793. 2 vols.
Ellenberger 1970, pp. 77–78.
Justinus Kerner. Die Seherin von Prevorst: Eröffnungen über das innere Leben des Menschen und über das Hereinragen einer Geisterwelt in die unsere. Stuttgart and Tübingen: J. G. Cotta, 1929. 2 vols.
Carl Adolph von Eschenmayer. Versuch die scheinbare Magie des thierischen Magnetismus. Stuttgart and Tübingen: Cotta, 1844; Mysterien des innern Lebens. Tübingen: Guttenberg, 1830. Joseph Ennemoser. Geschichte der Magie. Leipzig: F. A. Brockhaus, 1844; Der Magnetismus nach der allseitigen Beziehung seines Wesens. Leipzig: F. A. Brockhaus, 1819; Der Magnetismus im Verhältnis zur Natur und Religion. Stuttgart and Tübingen: J. G. Cotta, 1842; Anleitung zur mesmerischen Praxis. Stuttgart and Tübingen: J. G. Cotta, 1852.
Friedrich Hufeland. Ueber Sympathie. Weimar: Landes-Industrie-Comptoirs, 1811.
Karl Alexander Ferdinand Kluge. Versuch einer Darstellung des animalischen Magnetismus, als Heilmittel. Vienna: Franz Haas, 1815.
See Emil Schneider. Der animale Magnetismus. Zürich: Konrad Lampert, 1950, p. 408.
Karl Christian Wolfart. Der Magnetismus gegen die Stieglitz-Hufelandische Schrift über den thierischen Magnetismus in seinem wahren Wert. Berlin: Nikola, 1816.
Dietrich Georg Kieser. System des Tellurismus oder thierischen Magnetismus. Leipzig: F. L. Herbig, 1822. 2 vols.
Johann Christian Reil. Rhapsodieen über die Anwendung der psychischen Kurmethode auf Geistes-zerrüttungen. Halle: Curt, 1803.
Schneider Der animale Magnetismus, pp. 263, 369.
Ellenberger 1970, pp. 146–7, 211–212.
Carl Gustav Carus. Ueber Lebensmagnetismus und über die magischen Wirkungen überhaupt. Leipzig: F. A. Brockhaus, 1857.
Letter from F. A. Mesmer to George Washington dated June 16, 1784. The George Washington Papers, S. 4, P. 5.
M. J. Lafayette, friend and ally of Washington, had in an earlier letter made enthusiastic mention of Mesmer. See The Letters of Lafayette to Washington 1777–1779 (New York: Privately printed by Helen Fahnstock Hubbard, 1944), pp. 283–284.
Washington merely acknowledged Mesmer’s letter. See The Writings of George Washington from the Original Manuscript Sources, vol. 27 (Washington, DC: U.S. Government Printing Office, 1938).
Eric Carlson and Meribeth Simpson. “Perkinism vs. Mesmerism.” Journal of the History of the Behavioral Sciences 6 (1970):16–24.
Joseph Du Commun. Three Lectures on Animal Magnetism, as Delivered in New York, at the Hall of Science, on the 26th of July, 2d and 9th of August. New York: Berard & Mondon, 1829.
Charles Poyen St. Saveur, editor and translator. Report on the Medical Experiments Made by the Commission of the Royal Academy of Medicine of Paris. Boston: D. K. Hitchcock, 1836.
Poyen. Progress of Animal Magnetism in New England. Boston: Weeks, Jordan and Co., 1837.
J. P. F. Deleuze. Practical Instructions in Animal Magnetism, translated by Thomas C. Hartshorn. New York: D. Appleton and Co., 1837.
William F. Stone. Letter to Doctor A. Brigham on Animal Magnetism. New York: George Dearborn & Co., 1837.
C. F. Durant. Exposition, or a New Theory of Animal Magnetism. New York: Wiley & Putnam, 1837.
Poyen. A Letter to Col. Wm. L. Stone, of New York, on the Facts Related in his Letter to Dr. Brigham, and a Plain Refutation of Durant’s Exposition of Animal Magnetism, etc. Boston: Weeks, Jordan and Co., 1837.
Robert Collyer. Psychography, or the Embodiment of Thought. Philadelphia: Zieber & Co., 1843.
Charles Caldwell. Facts in Mesmerism and Thoughts on Its Causes and Uses. Louisville, KT: Prentice and Weissinger, 1842.
Laroy Sunderland. Pathetism. Boston: White and Potter, 1847.
For example, K. D. D. Dickerson. The Philosophy of Mesmerism, or Animal Magnetism. Concord, NH: Morrill, Silsby, and Co., 1843. Samuel Gregory. Mesmerism, or Animal Magnetism, and Its Uses. Boston: Redding, 1843. Charles P. Johnson. A Treatise on Animal Magnetism. New York: Burgess & Stringer, 1844. Daniel Drake. Analytical Report of a Series of Experiments in Mesmeric Somniloquism. Louisville, KT: F. W. Prescott. & Co., 1844. William Baker Fahnstock. Artificial Somnambulism Hitherto Called Mesmerism; or, Animal Magnetism. Philadelphia: Barclay & Co., 1860. Samuel Underhill. Underhill on Mesmerism. Chicago: The Author, 1868.
John Bovee Dods. Six Lectures on the Philosophy of Mesmerism, Delivered in the Marlboro Chapel, Boston. Boston: W. A. Hall, 1843, and The Philosophy of Electrical Psychology. New York: Fowler & Wells, 1850; James Stanley Grimes. Etherology; or the Philosophy of Mesmerism and Phrenology. Boston: Saxton Peirce, 1845, and The Mysteries of Human Nature Explained by a New System of Nervous Physiology. Buffalo: R. M. Wanzer, 1857.
Phineas Parkhurst Quimby. The Quimby Manuscripts, Horatio W. Dresser (ed.). New York: T. Y. Crowell, 1921.
Quimby’s ideas were taken up and transformed by one of his patients, Mary Baker Eddy. They were important in her formulation of the philosophy of Christian Science.
Robert Fuller. Mesmerism and the American Cure of Souls. Philadelphia: University of Pennsylvania Press, 1982, pp. 48–68, 144–145.
Fuller, p. 59.
John Benoit De Mainauduc. The Lectures of J. B. De Mainauduc, M. D. Part the First. London: Printed for the Executrix, 1798.
D. Edwards. Treatise on Animal Magnetism. London: Wagstaff, 1789; Mary Pratt. A List of a Few Cures Performed by Mr. and Mrs. De Loutherbourg of Hammersmith Terrace, Without Medicine. London: J. P. Cook, 1789; John Martin. Animal Magnetism Examined: in a Letter to a Country Gentleman. London: Stockdale, 1790; John Pearson. A Plain and Rational Account of the Nature and Effects of Animal Magnetism. London: W. and J. Stratford, 1790; A Practical Display of the Philosophical System Called Animal Magnetism. London: no publisher, 1790; Valentine Absonus. Animal Magnetism. A Ballad, with Explanatory Notes and Observations; Containing Several Curious Anecdotes of Animal Magnetizers, Ancient as well as Modern. London: no publisher, 1791; Samuel Stearns. The Mystery of Animal Magnetism Revealed to the World. London: M. R. Parsons, 1791; Wonders and Mysteries of Animal Magnetism Displayed. London: J. Sudbury, 1791.
John Bell. The General and Particular Principles of Animal Electricity and Magnetism. London: The Author, 1792, p. 68.
For a description of the popular interest in animal magnetism in Britain during this period, see Roger Cooter. The Cultural Meaning of Popular Science: Phrenology and the Organization of Consent in Nineteenth Century Britain. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1984.
John Elliotson. Numerous Cases of Surgical Operations without Pain in the Mesmeric State: with Remarks upon the Opposition of Many Members of the Royal Medical and Chirurgical Society and Others to the Reception of the Inestimable Blessings of Mesmerism. London: H. Baillière, 1843. James Esdaile. Mesmerism in India and its Practical Application in Surgery and Medicine. London: Longman, Brown, Green, and Longmans, 1846. Esdaile also wrote a book on mesmerism describing other somnambulistic phenomena: Natural and Mesmeric Clairvoyance. London: H. Baillière, 1852.
See Crabtree 1993, pp. 137–142 for a more complete discussion. 97. This English term was coined by Chauncy Hare Townshend in Facts in Mesmerism with Reasons for a Dispassionate Inquiry into It. London: Longman, Orme, Brown, Green and Longmans, 1840.
John Campbell Colquhoun. Report of the Experiments on Animal Magnetism, Made by a Committee of the Medical Section of the French Royal Academy of Sciences. Edinburgh: Robert Cadell, 1833; Isis Revelata: an Inquiry into the Origin, Progress & Present State of Animal Magnetism. 2 vols. Edinburgh: Maclachlan & Stewart, 1836.
Spenser Hall. Mesmeric Experiences. London: H. Baillière, 1845. George Barth. The Mesmerist’s Manual of Phenomena and Practice. London: H. Baillière, 1850; Mesmerism Not Miracle. London: H. Baillière, 1854. One of the curious works of the period (John Wilson. Trials of Animal Magnetism on The Brute Creation. London Sherwood, Gilbert, & Piper, 1839). described the production of magnetic somnambulism in animals. This study had relevance to the question of the degree to which the phenomena of animal magnetism were due to suggestion.
Chauncy Hare Townsend. Facts in Magnetism. London: Longman, Orne, Brown, Green, and Longmans, 1840. William Gregory. Letters to a Candid Inquirer, on Animal Magnetism. London: Taylor, Walton, and Maberly, 1851. Herbert Mayo. Letters on the Truths Contained in Popular Superstitions, with an Account of Mesmerism. 2nd edition. Edinburgh: William Blackwood, 1851; Joseph W. Haddock. Somnolism and Psycheism, Otherwise Vital Magnetism, or Mesmerism: Considered Physiologically and Philosophically. London: Hudson, 1849. Other influential writings on animal magnetism were [William Lang]. Mesmerism; Its History, Phenomena, and Practice: With Reports of Cases Developed in Scotland. Edinburgh: Fraser, 1843; Harriett Martineau. Letters on Mesmerism. London: E. Moxon, 1845; William Newnham. Human Magnetism; Its Claims to Dispassionate Inquiry. London: Churchill, 1845; George Sandby. Mesmerism and Its Opponents. London: Longman, Brown, Green, and Longmans, 1848; W. Scoresby. Zoistic Magnetism. London: Longman, Brown, Green, and Longmans, 1849; John Ashburner. Notes and Studies in the Philosophy of Animal Magnetism and Spiritualism. London: H. Baillière, 1867. Works critical of mesmerism included John Forbes. Mesmerism True—Mesmerism False: A Critical Examination of the Facts. London: Churchill, 1845; John Hughes Bennett. The Mesmeric Mania of 1851. Edinburgh: Sutherland and Knox, 1851; William Carpenter. Principles of Mental Physiology, 4th edition. London: Henry S. King, 1876.
Charles Lafontaine. L’art de magnétiseur ou le magnétisme animal considéré sous le point de vue théorique, pratique et thérapeutique. Paris: Germer Baillière, 1847; Lafontaine. Eclaircissements sur le magnétisme. Cures magnétiques à Genève. Geneva: De Chateauvieux, 1855.
James Braid. Satanic Agency and Mesmerism Reviewed. Manchester: Simms and Dinham, and Galt and Anderson, 1842.
Quoted in Maurice Tinterow. Foundations of Hypnosis from Mesmer to Freud. Springfield, Ill.: Charles C. Thomas, 1970, p. 321.
James Braid. Neurypnology or the Rationale of Nervous Sleep Considered in Relation with Animal Magnetism. London: John Churchill, 1843.
James Braid. Electro-biological Phenomena Considered Physiologically and Psychologically. Edinburgh: Sutherland & Knox, 1851; Magic, Witchcraft, Animal Magnetism, Hypnotism, and Electrobiology, 3rd edition. London: J. Churchill, 1852; The Physiology of Fascination and the Critics Criticized. Manchester: Grant & Co., 1855.
Braid, 1851.
Braid, 1853.
Abbé José Custodio de Faria. De la cause du sommeil lucide, ou étude de la nature de l’homme. Tome premier. Paris: Mme. Horiac, 1819; Etienne Félix, baron d’Hénin de Cuvillers. Exposition critique du système et de la doctrine mystique des magnétistes. Paris: Barrois, Belin le Prieur, Treuttel et Wurtz, and Delaunay, 1822; Alexandre Bertrand. Du magnétisme animal en France. Paris: J. B. Bailliére, 1826.
William Carpenter was one of the few prominent contemporary Englishmen to credit Braid with an important discovery (Carpenter 1853).
Paul Broca. Sur l’anesthésie chirurgical hypnotique. Paris: Noblet, 1859.
Eugène Azam. Note sur le sommeil nerveux ou hypnotisme. Archives générales de médecine(Jan. 1860): 5–24; Joseph Pierre Durand [pseudonym: A. J. P. Philips]. Cours théorique et pratique de braidisme ou hypnotisme nerveux. Paris: J. B. Baillière, 1860; Ambroise Auguste Liébeault. Du sommeil et des états analogues considérés surtout au point de vue de l’action du moral sur le physique. Paris: Victor Masson et fils, 1866; Liébault. Ebauche de psychologie. Paris: G. Masson, 1873; Hippolyte Bernheim. De la suggestion dans l’état hypnotique et dans l’état de veille. Paris: Octave Doin, 1884.
Albert Moll. Der Hypnotismus. Berlin: H. Kornfeld, 1889, pp. 8–9.
Though Preyer had previously written of his experiments using animal magnetism on animals and men in his 1878 Die Kataplexie und der theirische Hypnotismus (Jena: G. Fischer) and 1880 Naturwissenschaftliche Thatsachen und Probleme (Berlin: Paetel), it was apparently only with his exposure to Braid’s ideas that he was able to formulate a cohesive theory, for which see his 1881 Die Entdeckung des Hypnotismus (Berlin: Paetel) and 1890 Der Hypnotismus (Vienna: Urban & Schwarzenberg)..
Charles Richet, “Du somnambulisme provoqué.” Journal de l’anatomie et de la physiologie normales et pathologiques de l’homme et des animaux (1875) 11: 348–378.
Eberhard Gmelin. Ueber den thierischen Magnetismus. Tübingen: Heerbrandt, 1787, 1, pp. 2–89.
Eric T. Carlson, Jeffrey L. Wollock, and Patricia S. Noel (editors). Benjamin Rush’s Lectures on the Mind. Philadelphia: American Philosophical Society, 1981, p. 669.
Eric T. Carlson. “The history of multiple personality in the United States: Mary Reynolds and her subsequent reputation.” Bulletin of the History of Medicine 58: 72–82.
Adam Crabtree. 1988, pp. 283 and following.
John Elliotson, “Instances of double states of consciousness independent of mesmerism.” Zoist (1846) 4, p. 157.
William Gregory, Letters to a Candid Inquirer, on Animal Magnetism. London: Taylor, Walton, and Maberly, 1851, pp. 84 and 85.
For example, H. Dewar, “Report on a communication from Dr. Dyce.” Transactions of the Royal Society of Edinburgh 9 (1823), 365–379 and Thomas Mayo. “Case of double consciousness.” London Medical Gazette 36 (1845), 1202–1203.
See Crabtree 1993, Chapter 12.
Paris: Ledoyen, 1855, pp. 11–44.
William James, “Notes on automatic writing.” Proceedings of the (Old) American Society for Psychical Research 1 (1889): 551–554.
For a listing of pre-1784 cases, see Gauld 1992, p. 629, as well as his “Hypnosis, Somnambulism, and double consciousness.” Contemporary Hypnosis 9 (1992): 69–76. For post-1784 cases see Crabtree 1988 and Carole Geottman, George Greaves, and Philip Coons. Multiple Personality and Dissociation: 1791–1990: A complete Bibliography. Atlanta: Privately published, 1992.
Eugène Azam. “Amnésie périodique ou dédoublement de la vie.” Revue scientifique 16 (1876): 481–489; “Le dédoublement de la personalité: Suite de l’histoire de Félida X***.” Revue scientifique 18 (1876): 265–269; “Le dédoublement de la personnalité et l’amnésie périodique.” Revue scientifique 20 (1877): 577–581; Hypnotisme, double conscience et altérations de la personnalité. Paris: Librarie J. H. Baillière, 1887; Hypnotisme et double conscience. Origine de leur étude et divers travaux sur des sujets analogues. Paris: Félix Alcan, 1893.
Henri Bourru and P. Burot. Variations de la personnalité. Paris: J. B. Baillière, 1885. Ian Hacking has published a study of the relationship between the evolution of multiple personality as a disorder and the evolution of thinking about memory, identifying the case of Louis Vivé as pivotal in this development. Rewriting the Soul: Multiple Personality and the Sciences of Memory. Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, 1995.
Pierre Janet. L’automatisme psychologique: Essai de psychologie expérimentale sur les formes inférieures de l’activité humaine. Paris: Félix Alcan, 1889.
Janet, “Les actes inconscients et le dédoublement de la personnalité pendant le somnambulisme provoqué.” Revue philosophique 22 (1886): 577–592; “L’anesthésie systématisée et la dissociation des phénomènes psychologiques.” Revue philosophique 23 (1887): 449–472; “Les actes inconscients et la mémoire pendant le somnambulisme.” Revue philosophique 25 (1888): 238–279.
It is important to note that although Janet was first to develop the notion of intelligent subconscious centers of consciousness in a psychotherapeutic direction, he did not originate the concept. The idea of secondary centers of consciousness had been worked out by Frederic W. H. Myers in articles written in the 1880s. Elsewhere I have more fully described Myers’s influence on Janet’s thinking: Adam Crabtree. “‘Automatism’ and the emergence of dynamic psychiatry.” Journal of the History of the Behavioral Sciences, 39 (2003): 51–70; and “Automatism and secondary centers of consciousness,” in Irreducible Mind: Toward a Psychology for the 21st Century by Edward Kelly, Emily Williams Kelly, Adam Crabtree, Alan Gauld, Michael Grosso, and Bruce Greyson (Lanham, Maryland: Rowman and Littlefield, 2007).
The notion of “fixed ideas” in the context of hypnotic suggestion is found previously in Braid 1853 and Liébault 1873, p. 176.
William James. Principles of Psychology. New York: Henry Holt, 1890, pp. 367–368.
Eugene Taylor. William James on Exceptional Mental States: The 1896 Lowell Lectures. New York: Charles Scribner’s Sons, 1983.
Frederick H. Myers. “The subliminal consciousness.” Society for Psychical Research Proceedings 7 (1892): 298–355; “The subliminal consciousness.” Society for Psychical Research Proceedings 8 (1892): 436–535; “The subliminal consciousness.” Society for Psychical Research Proceedings 9 (1893): 2–128; “The subliminal self. Society for Psychical Research Proceedings 11 (1895): 334–593.
William James. In memory of F. W. H. Myers. Society for Psychical Research Proceedings 17 (1901): 13–23.
London: Longmans, Green, and Co., 1903. 2 vols.
Morton Prince. The Dissociation of a Personality: A Biographical Study in Abnormal Psychology. New York: Longmans, Green, 1905.
A symposium on the subconscious. Journal of Abnormal Psychology 2 (1907): 67–80.
Morton Prince. The Unconscious: the Fundamentals of Human Personality Normal and Abnormal. New York: Macmillan, 1914; Clinical and Experimental Studies in Personality. Cambridge, Massachusetts: Sci-Art Publishers, 1929.
Their original paper, “Über den psychischen Mechanismus hysterischer Phänomene: Vorläufige Mitteilung,” appeared in the Neurologische Centralblatt, 12 (1893): 4–10, 43–47, and then in book form, with Freud writing the theoretical chapters, as Studien über Hysterie. Leipzig/Vienna: Franz Deuticke, 1895. English version as Studies in Hysteria (1893-1895). In The Standard Edition of the Complete Psychological Works of Sigmund Freud. Vol. 2. London: Hogarth Press, 1964.
Freud, Standard Edition, Vol. 2, pp. 17 and 222.
Ibid., p. 216.
Ibid., pp. 215–230.
Ibid., pp. 235–236.
Ibid., p. 27 note.
Ibid., pp. 21–22.
Ibid., pp. 21–22, 170–171; and Freud, An Autobiographical Study. In Standard Edition, Vol. 20, p. 31). For more on the differing views of Freud and Janet in this matter, see my “Explanations of dissociation in the first half of the twentieth century.” In Split Minds and Split Brains, edited by Jacques Quen. New York: New York University Press, 1986 and my “Automatism and secondary center of consciousness” (2007), pp. 327–332.
See, for example, Bernard Hart, “The conception of dissociation.” British Journal of Medical Psychology 6 (1926): 241–263.
Sigmund Freud. The Ego and the Id (1923). In Standard Edition, Vol. 19, pp. 30–31.
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Crabtree, A. (2008). The Transition to Secular Psychotherapy. In: Wallace, E.R., Gach, J. (eds) History of Psychiatry and Medical Psychology. Springer, Boston, MA. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-0-387-34708-0_19
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