Skip to main content
SpringerLink
Log in

New Fire Protection Materials

  • Chapter
  • First Online:
Intelligent Building Fire Safety and Smart Firefighting

  • 345 Accesses

This is a preview of subscription content, log in via an institution to check access.

Access this chapter

Log in via an institution
Chapter
USD 29.95
Price excludes VAT (USA)
  • Available as PDF
  • Read on any device
  • Instant download
  • Own it forever
eBook
USD 119.00
Price excludes VAT (USA)
  • Available as EPUB and PDF
  • Read on any device
  • Instant download
  • Own it forever
Hardcover Book
USD 159.99
Price excludes VAT (USA)
  • Durable hardcover edition
  • Dispatched in 3 to 5 business days
  • Free shipping worldwide - see info

Tax calculation will be finalised at checkout

Purchases are for personal use only

Institutional subscriptions

References

  1. M. Ahrens, Home Structure Fires (National Fire Protection Association, 2019)

    Google Scholar 

  2. M. Ahrens, Home Fires that Began with Upholstered Furniture (National Fire Protection Association Research, 2017).

    Google Scholar 

  3. J.R. Hall, Estimating fires when a product is the primary fuel but not the first fuel, with an application to upholstered furniture. Fire Technol. 51(2), 381–391 (2015)

    Article  Google Scholar 

  4. R.G. Gann, The challenge of realizing low flammability home furnishings. Interflam, in Interscience Communications (CD Version, London, England, 2013)

    Google Scholar 

  5. Anonymous: Requirements, Test procedure and apparatus for testing the smolder resistance of materials used in upholstered furniture, in Bureau of Electronic & Appliance Repair Home Furnishing & Thermal Insulation, Technical Bulletin, vol. 117 (Sacramento, CA, 2013)

    Google Scholar 

  6. Anonymous: filling/padding component test method—barrier test method—fabric classification test method. Upholstered Furniture Action Council (UFAC) (1990)

    Google Scholar 

  7. A. International, E1353–16 Standard Test Methods for Cigarette Ignition Resistance of Components of Upholstered Furniture (ASTM International, West Conshohocken, PA, 2016)

    Google Scholar 

  8. Agency NFPA: NFPA 260—Standard Methods of Tests and Classification System for Cigarette Ignition Resistance of Components of Upholstered Furniture (2013)

    Google Scholar 

  9. Anonymous: PART 1640—Standard for the Flammability of Upholstered Furniture, Federal Register/Vol. 86, No. 67/in 16 CFR Part 1640 ed Commission CPS (2021)

    Google Scholar 

  10. D. Clark, What is TB117–2013? (Home Furnishings Association, 2015)

    Google Scholar 

  11. I. Watanabe, S.I. Sakai, Environmental release and behavior of brominated flame retardants. Environ. Int. 29, 665–682 (2003)

    Article  Google Scholar 

  12. S.D. Shaw, M.L. Berger, D. Brenner, K. Kannan, N. Lohmann, O. Papke, Bioaccumulation of polybrominated diphenyl ethers and hexabromocyclododecane in the northwest Atlantic marine food web. Sci. Total Environ. 407, 3323–3329 (2009)

    Google Scholar 

  13. S. Mizouchi, M. Ichiba, H. Takigami et al., Exposure assessment of organophosphorus and organobromine flame retardants via indoor dust from elementary schools and domestic houses. Chemosphere 123, 17–25 (2015)

    Article  Google Scholar 

  14. V. Babrauskas, A. Blum, R. Daley, L. Birnbaum, Flame retardants in furniture foam: benefits and risks, in Paper presented at: Fire Safety Science-Proceedings of the Tenth International Symposium (2011), pp. 265–287

    Google Scholar 

  15. M. Babich, C. Bevington, X. Chen, et al., Project plan: organohalogen flame retardant chemicals assessment. Consum. Prod. Saf. Comm. (2020)

    Google Scholar 

  16. An Act to Protect Firefighters by Establishing a Prohibition on the Sale and Distribution of New Upholstered Furniture Containing Certain Flame-Retardant Chemicals. 128th Maine Legislature House of Representatives 182 (2017)

    Google Scholar 

  17. Consumer Products: Flame Retardant Materials. State of California Office of Legislative Counsel Bloom 2998 (2018)

    Google Scholar 

  18. CPSC-2015–0022 CDN: Guidance document on hazardous additive, non-polymeric organohalogen flame retardants in certain consumer products, in Commission CPS, ed., vol. 82: Federal Register (2017)

    Google Scholar 

  19. C. Papaspyrides, P. Kiliaris, Polymer Green Flame Retardants (Elsevier, Amsterdam, Netherlands, 2014)

    Google Scholar 

  20. S. Nazare, W. Pitts, S. Flynn, J.R. Shields, R.D. Davis, Evaluating fire blocking performance of barrier fabrics. Fire Mater. 38, 695–716 (2014)

    Google Scholar 

  21. T.J. Ohlemiller, J.R. Shields, Behavior of mock-ups in the California technical bulletin 133 test protocol: fabric and barrier effects. NIST Interagency/Internal Report (NISTIR) 5653 (1995)

    Google Scholar 

  22. W. Pitts, M. Werrel, M. Fernandez, A.M. Long, Assessing the Predictive Capability for Real-Scale Residential Upholstered Furniture Mock-Up Fires using Cone Calorimeter Measurements. Part 1: Real-Scale Experiments (Eisenberg EA, Runyon CD, 2020)

    Google Scholar 

  23. T. Fabian, Upholstered furniture flammability, in Underwriter Laboratories (2013)

    Google Scholar 

  24. W.D. Woolley, S.A. Ames, A.I. Pitt, K. Buckland, The ignition and burning characteristics of fabric covered foams. Build. Res. Establ. (1978)

    Google Scholar 

  25. K. Storesund, A. Steen-Hansen, A. Bergstrand, Fire safe upholstered furniture: alternative strategies to the use of chemical flame retardants. SP Fire Res. (2015)

    Google Scholar 

  26. A. Lock, Memoranda on Full-Scale Upholstered Furniture Testing, 2014–2015. U.S. Consumer Product Safety Commission (2016)

    Google Scholar 

  27. A. Lock, Memoranda on Full-Scale Upholstered Furniture Testing, 2016. U.S. Consumer Product Safety Commission (2017)

    Google Scholar 

  28. M. Black, A. Davis, D. Harris, P. Barry, R. Cohen, et al., A Study of Chemical Exposure Risk and Flammability of Upholstered Furniture and Consumer Electronics. Underwriter Laboratories (2019)

    Google Scholar 

  29. A.L. Thompson, I. Kim, A. Hamins, M. Bundy, M. Zammarano, Performance and failure mechanism of fire barriers in full-scale chair mock-ups. Fire Mater. 46(1), 329–346 (2021)

    Article  Google Scholar 

  30. M. Zammarano, M.S. Hoehler, J.R. Shields, A.L. Thompson, I. Kim, I. Leventon, M. Bundy, NIST Technical Note 2129. Full-Scale Experiments to Demonstrate Flammability Risk of Residential Upholstered Furniture and Mitigation Using Barrier Fabric. NIST Technical Note (2021)

    Google Scholar 

  31. M. Zammarano, J.R. Shields, I. Leventon, I. Kim, S. Nazare, A. Thompson, R.D. Davis, A. Chernovsky, M. Bundy, Reduced-scale test to assess the effect of fire barriers on the flaming combustion of cored composites: an upholstery-material case study. Fire Mater. 45(1), 114–126 (2021)

    Article  Google Scholar 

  32. M. Zammarano, Fire Performance of Upholstery Materials: Correlation between Cube Test and Full-Scale Chair Mock-Ups. NIST Technical Note, vol. 219 (2021)

    Google Scholar 

  33. S. Nurbakhsh, J. Mccormack, A review of the technical bulletin 129 full scale test method for flammability of mattresses for public occupancies. J. Fire Sci. 16(2), 105–124 (1998)

    Article  Google Scholar 

  34. S. Nazaré, R. Davis, A review of fire blocking technologies for soft furnishings. Fire Sci. Rev. 1(1), 1 (2012)

    Article  Google Scholar 

  35. M. Ravey, E.M. Pearce, Flexible polyurethane foam I. thermal decomposition of a polyether-based, water-blown commercial type of flexible polyurethane foam. J. Appl. Polym. Sci. 63(1), 47–74 (1997)

    Google Scholar 

  36. E. Weil, S. Levchik, Flame retardants in commercial use or development for textiles. J. Fire Sci. 26, 243–281 (2008)

    Article  Google Scholar 

  37. Q. Qiu, M. Kumosa, Corrosion of E-glass fibers in acidic environments. Compos. Sci. Technol. 57, 497–507 (1997)

    Article  Google Scholar 

  38. X. Chen, W. Wang, S. Li, C. Jiao, Fire safety improvement of paraaramid fiber in thermoplastic polyurethane elastomer. J. Hazard. Mater. 324, 789–796 (2017)

    Article  Google Scholar 

  39. S. Heidari, A. Paren, P. Nousiainen, The mechanism of fire resistance in viscose/silicic acid hybrid fibres. J. Soc. Dyers Colour. 109(7–8), 261–263 (1993)

    Article  Google Scholar 

  40. T.-H. Ko, Characterization of PAN-based nonburning (nonflammable) fibers. J. Appl. Polym. Sci. 47(4), 707–715 (1993)

    Article  MathSciNet  Google Scholar 

  41. ASTM D737–18 Standard Test Method for Air Permeability of Textile Fabrics (2018)

    Google Scholar 

  42. J.S. Fritz, Ion chromatography. Anal. Chem. 59(4), 335–344 (1987)

    Article  Google Scholar 

  43. R.B. Bradstrut, Kjeldahl method for organic nitrogen. Anal. Chem. 26(1), 185–187 (1954)

    Article  Google Scholar 

  44. ASTM. E1479–16 Standard Practice for Describing and Specifying Inductively Coupled Plasma Atomic Emission Spectrometers (2016)

    Google Scholar 

  45. B. Beckhoff, B. Kanngieber, N. Langhoff, R. Wedell, H. Wolff, Handbook of Practical X-Ray Fluorescence Analysis (Springer, Berlin, Germany, 2006)

    Book  Google Scholar 

  46. O.D. Sparkman, Z. Penton, F. Kitson, Gas Chromatography and Mass Spectrometry: A Practical Guide, 2nd edn. (Academic Press, Cambridge, MA, 2011)

    Google Scholar 

  47. ASTM. C1875–18 Standard Practice for Determination of Major and Minor Elements in Aqueous Pore Solutions of Cementitious Pastes by Inductively Coupled Plasma Optical Emission Spectroscopy (ICP-OES) (2018)

    Google Scholar 

  48. M. Petreas, R. Gill, S. Takaku-Pugh et al., Rapid methodology to screen flame retardants in upholstered furniture for compliance with new California labeling law (SB 1019). Chemosphere 152, 353–359 (2016)

    Article  Google Scholar 

  49. H.M. Stapleton, S. Klosterhaus, A. Keller et al., Identification of flame retardants in polyurethane foam collected from baby products. Environ. Sci. Technol. 45, 5323–5331 (2011)

    Article  Google Scholar 

  50. C.-Y. Wang, S.D. Bunday, J.G. Tartar, Ion chromatographic determination of fluorine, chlorine, bromine, and iodine with sequential electrochemical and conductometric detection. Anal. Chem. 55(9), 1617–1619 (1983)

    Article  Google Scholar 

  51. J.F. Colaruotolo, R.S. Eddy, Determination of chlorine, bromine, phosphorus, and sulfur in organic molecules by ion chromatography. Anal. Chem. 49(6), 884–885 (1997)

    Article  Google Scholar 

  52. W.P. Shorrock, O.B. Yale, Inventors; Pilkington PLC, Merseyside, England, assignee. Borosilicate Glass Composition 55 (1993)

    Google Scholar 

  53. T. Furukawa, W.B. White, Raman spectroscopic investigation of sodium borosilicate glass structure. J. Mater. Sci. 16, 2689–2700 (1981)

    Article  Google Scholar 

  54. H.P. Hood, M.E. Nordberg, Inventors. Treated Borosilicate Glass (1938)

    Google Scholar 

  55. K.K. Shen, R. O'Connor, Flame retardants: borates, in Plastics Additives: An A-Z Reference, ed. by G. Pritchard (Springer, Dordrecht, The Netherlands, 1998), pp. 268–276

    Google Scholar 

  56. H.D. Brabandere, N. Forsgard, L. Israelsson et al., Screening for organic phosphorus compounds in aquatic sediments by liquid chromatography coupled to ICP-AES and ESI-MS/MS. Anal. Chem. 80, 6689–6697 (2008)

    Article  Google Scholar 

  57. E. Hoh, N.G. Dodder, S.J. Lehotay, K.C. Pangallo, C.M. Reddy, K.A. Maruya, Nontargeted comprehensive two-dimensional gas chromatography/time-of-flight mass spectrometry method and software for inventorying persistent and bioaccumulative contaminants in marine environments. Environ. Sci. Technol. 46, 8001–8008 (2012)

    Article  Google Scholar 

  58. T. Ohlemiller, K.M. Villa, NISTIR 4348 - furniture flammability: Sn investigation of the California bulletin 133 Test. Part 2. Characterization of the ignition source and a comparable gas burner. NIST (1990)

    Google Scholar 

  59. F. Rogers, T. Ohlemiller, Smolder characteristics of flexible polyurethane foams. J. Fire Flammability. 11(1), 32–44 (1980)

    Google Scholar 

  60. R.H. Krämer, M. Zammarano, G.T. Linteris, U.W. Gedde, J.W. Gilman, Heat release and structural collapse of flexible polyurethane foam. Polym. Degrad. Stab. 95(6), 1115–1122 (2010)

    Article  Google Scholar 

  61. G. Rein, Smoldering combustion. SFPE Handbook of Fire Protection Engineering (Springer, New York, NY, 2016), pp. 581–603

    Book  Google Scholar 

  62. X. Zhao, Y.-T.T. Liao, M.C. Johnston, T'J.S. Ien, P.V. Ferkul, S.L. Olson, Concurrent flame growth, spread, and quenching over composite fabric samples in low speed purely forced flow in microgravity. Proc. Combust. Inst. 36(2), 2971–2978 (2017)

    Google Scholar 

  63. J. Sherratt, D.D. Drysdale, The effect of the melt-flow process on the fire behaviour of thermoplastics. Paper presented at: Interflam 2001. Edinburgh (2001)

    Google Scholar 

  64. I. Kim, A.L. Thompson, S.C. Kim et al., Demonstration of an all-in-one solution for fire safe upholstery furniture: a Benign backcoating for smoldering and flame-resistant cover fabrics. Fire Mater. 46(4), 677–693 (2022)

    Article  Google Scholar 

  65. R.A. Bryant, M.F. Bundy, The NIST 20 MW calorimetry measurement system for large-fire research. NIST Technical Note 2077 (2019)

    Google Scholar 

  66. B.N. Taylor, C.E. Kuyatt, Guidelines for Evaluating and Expressing the Uncertainty of NIST measurement results. NIST Technical Note, vol. 1297 (1994)

    Google Scholar 

  67. M.C. Bruns, Estimating the flashover probability of residential fires using Monte Carlo simulations of the MQH correlation. Fire Technol. 54(1), 187–210 (2018)

    Article  Google Scholar 

  68. B. Sundstrom, Combustion behavior of upholstered furniture. Important findings, practical use, and implications. Fire Mater. 45, 97–113 (2020)

    Google Scholar 

  69. H. Denize, The Combustion Behaviour of Upholstered Furniture Materials in New Zealand. Civil Engineering, University of Canterbury ISSN 1173–5996 (2000)

    Google Scholar 

  70. S. Mehta, Upholstered Furniture Full Scale Chair Tests-Open Flame Ignition Results and Analysis (Consumer Product Safety Commission, 2012)

    Google Scholar 

  71. J. Sherratt, D. Drysdale, The effect of the melt-flow process on the fire behavior of thermoplastics, in INTERFLAM (2001)

    Google Scholar 

  72. M. Zammarano, S. Matko, W.M. Pitts, D.M. Fox, R.D. Davis, Towards a reference polyurethane foam and bench scale test for assessing smoldering in upholstered furniture. Polym. Degrad. Stab. 106, 97–107 (2014)

    Article  Google Scholar 

  73. D.A. Purser, J.D. McAllister, Assessment of hazards to occupants from smoke, toxic gases and heat. SFPE Handbook of Fire Protection Engineering, 5th edn. (Springer, New York, 2016), pp. 2308–2428

    Google Scholar 

  74. F.F. Chen, C. Fleischmann, Radiant Ignition of New Zealand Upholstered Furniture Composites (University of Canterbury, Christchurch, New Zealand, 2001)

    Google Scholar 

  75. SFPE, Engineering Guide: Piloted Ignition of Solid Materials Under Radiant Exposure (Society of Fire Protection Engineers, Gaithersburg, MD, 2002)

    Google Scholar 

  76. T.J. Ohlemiller, R.G. Gann, Estimating reduced fire risk resulting from an improved mattress flammability standard. NIST Tech. Note 1446, 80 (2002)

    Google Scholar 

  77. R.H. Kramer, M. Zammarano, G.T. Linteris, U.W. Gedde, J.W. Gilman, Heat release and structural collapse of flexible polyurethane foam. Polym. Degrad. Stab. 95, 1115–1122 (2010)

    Article  Google Scholar 

  78. V. Babrauskas, Pillow burning rates. Fire Saf. J. 8(3), 199–200 (1985)

    Article  Google Scholar 

  79. H.E. Mitler, K-M. Tu, Effect of ignition location on heat release rate of burning upholstered furniture. Paper presented at: Annual Conference on Fire Research: Book of Abstracts (1994)

    Google Scholar 

  80. M.C. Bruns, Predicting the effects of barrier fabrics on residential upholstered furniture fire hazard. NIST Tech. Note 1920 (2016)

    Google Scholar 

  81. NFPA: NFPA 1710, Standard for the Organization and Deployment of fire Suppression Operations, Emergency Medical Operations, and Special Operations to the Public by Career Fire Departments (National Fire Protection Association, 2010)

    Google Scholar 

  82. NFPA, NFPA 1720, Standard for the Organization and Deployment of Fire Suppression Operations, Emergency Medical Operations, and Special Operations to the Public by Volunteer Fire Departments (2010)

    Google Scholar 

  83. T. Graham, G.M. Makhviladze, J.P. Roberts, On the theory of flashover development. Fire Saf. J. 25(3), 229–259 (1995)

    Article  Google Scholar 

  84. ISO 13571, Life‐threatening components of fire—guidelines for the estimation of time to compromised tenability in fires (2012)

    Google Scholar 

  85. S.T. McKenna, R. Birtles, K. Dickens, R.G. Walker, M.J. Spearpoint, A.A. Stec, T.R. Hull, Flame retardants in UK furniture increase smoke toxicity more than they reduce fire growth rate. Chemosphere 196, 429–439 (2018)

    Article  Google Scholar 

  86. V. Babrauskas, B.C. Levin, R.G. Gann, M. Paabo, R.H. Harris, R.D. Peacock, S. Yusa, Toxic potency measurement for fire hazard analysis. Fire Technol. 28(2), 163–167 (1992)

    Article  Google Scholar 

  87. L.Y. Cooper, A concept for estimating available safe egress time in fires. Fire Saf. J. 5(2), 135–144 (1983)

    Article  Google Scholar 

Download references

Acknowledgements

The author gratefully acknowledges Mauro Zammarano, Leader, “Fire Barriers for Low Heat Release Rate Products” Project at the National Institute of Standards and Technology (NIST) for his mentorship and guidance throughout the various projects cited in this chapter. Also, the team at the NIST National Fire Research Laboratory—Matthew Bundy, Matthew Hoehler, Anthony Hamins, Marco Fernandez, Laurean DeLauter, Philip Deardorff, Anthony Chakalis, Michael Selepak, Artur Chernovsky, and Andrew Mundy—for their assistance in test setup, execution, and expertise made various experiments cited in this chapter possible. Members of the NIST Flammability Reduction Group—Ickchan Kim, John R. Shields, Isaac Leventon, Shonali Nazare, Rick Davis, William Pitts, and Richard Gann for their valuable contributions. Special thanks are given to the NIST Fire Department for their support for each burn conducted in NFRL.

Author information

Authors and Affiliations

  1. Fire Research Division, Engineering Laboratory, National Institute of Standards and Technology, Gaithersburg, 20899, USA

    Andre L. Thompson

Authors
  1. Andre L. Thompson
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

Corresponding author

Correspondence to Andre L. Thompson .

Editor information

Editors and Affiliations

  1. Department of Building Environment and Energy Engineering, Hong Kong Polytechnic University, Kowloon, Hong Kong

    Xinyan Huang

  2. Fire Research Division, National Institute of Standards and Technology, Gaithersburg, MD, USA

    Wai Cheong Tam

Rights and permissions

Reprints and permissions

Copyright information

© 2024 The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature Switzerland AG

About this chapter

Check for updates. Verify currency and authenticity via CrossMark

Cite this chapter

Thompson, A.L. (2024). New Fire Protection Materials. In: Huang, X., Tam, W.C. (eds) Intelligent Building Fire Safety and Smart Firefighting. Digital Innovations in Architecture, Engineering and Construction. Springer, Cham. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-031-48161-1_9

Download citation

  • DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-031-48161-1_9

  • Published:

  • Publisher Name: Springer, Cham

  • Print ISBN: 978-3-031-48160-4

  • Online ISBN: 978-3-031-48161-1

  • eBook Packages: EngineeringEngineering (R0)

Publish with us

Policies and ethics

Search

Navigation