doi:10.1016/j.chemosphere.2006.03.026 
Copyright © 2006 Elsevier Ltd All rights reserved.
Review
A global perspective on the use, sales, exposure pathways, occurrence, fate and effects of veterinary antibiotics (VAs) in the environment
Ajit K. Sarmaha, 
, 
, Michael T. Meyerb and Alistair B.A. Boxallc
aLandcare Research New Zealand Limited, Private Bag 3127, Hamilton, New Zealand
bUS Geological Survey, 4821 Quail Crest Place, Lawrence, KS 66049-3839, USA
cEcoChemistry Team, York University/CSL, Sand Hutton, York YO41 1LZ, UK
Received 27 November 2005;
revised 15 March 2006;
revised 16 March 2006.
Available online 4 May 2006.
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Abstract
Veterinary antibiotics (VAs) are widely used in many countries worldwide to treat disease and protect the health of animals. They are also incorporated into animal feed to improve growth rate and feed efficiency. As antibiotics are poorly adsorbed in the gut of the animals, the majority is excreted unchanged in faeces and urine. Given that land application of animal waste as a supplement to fertilizer is often a common practice in many countries, there is a growing international concern about the potential impact of antibiotic residues on the environment. Frequent use of antibiotics has also raised concerns about increased antibiotic resistance of microorganisms. We have attempted in this paper to summarize the latest information available in the literature on the use, sales, exposure pathways, environmental occurrence, fate and effects of veterinary antibiotics in animal agriculture. The review has focused on four important groups of antibiotics (tylosin, tetracycline, sulfonamides and, to a lesser extent, bacitracin) giving a background on their chemical nature, fate processes, occurrence, and effects on plants, soil organisms and bacterial community. Recognising the importance and the growing debate, the issue of antibiotic resistance due to the frequent use of antibiotics in food-producing animals is also briefly covered. The final section highlights some unresolved questions and presents a way forward on issues requiring urgent attention.
Keywords: Tylosin; Tetracycline; Sulfonamides; Partitioning coefficient; Biodegradation; Ecotoxicity
Fig. 1. Antibiotics use reported in millions of kilograms by AHI (Animal Health Institute) survey in 1999. Amounts shown in parentheses indicate percentages of total antibiotics (* denotes the antibiotics developed for animal production and not related to traditional antibiotics, ** includes cephalosporins, macrolides, lincosamides, polypeptides, streptogramins, and other minor compounds).
Fig. 2. Regional distribution of use of antibiotics in feed and water on a preventative basis for grower/finisher hogs. (Source: NAHMS, 1996.)
Fig. 3. Total antibiotic sales (kg) for agricultural industries in New Zealand. Amounts shown in parentheses indicate percentages of total antibiotics in the year 2000. (Source: ACVM Group Survey, MAF, 2001, New Zealand.)
Fig. 4. Anticipated exposure pathways for veterinary antibiotics in the environment.
Fig. 5. Concentration of tetracycline residues as a function of depth under field conditions. (Data source: Hamscher et al., 2002.)
Fig. 6. Molecular structure of some antibiotics commonly used in animal husbandry.
Fig. 7. Degradation of tetracycline under controlled laboratory conditions. (Data source: Kühne et al., 2000.)
Table 1.
Selected antibiotics approved for use in the US for use in livestock at therapeutic and at sub-therapeutic levels
Source: NRC, 1999 and Mellon et al., 2001.
a Only in combination with chlortetracycline and penicillin.
b Available by prescription only.
c In combination with arsanilic acid in poultry.
d Only administered in conjunction with chlortetracycline and tylosin.
Table 2.
USEPA proposed definition of CAFOs
Source: USEPA (2000).
Table 3.
Usage of antimicrobial active substances sold in the UK in 2000
Data source: IMS Health.
Table 4.
Animal antibiotics registered for use as growth promoters/feed efficiency in Australia, Denmark, European Union (EU), Canada and the USA
Sources: NRA, 1998, Prescott and Baggott, 1995, Health Canada, 2002 and Mellon et al., 2001.
a Use banned from 1 January 1999.
b Under EC directive 70/24/EEC, 1998.
c Include chicken, turkey, quail, pheasant.
d Used with chlortetracycline and penicillin.
Table 5.
Usage of antimicrobial growth promoters (kg active compound) in Denmark
Source: DANMAP (2000).
Table 6.
Use of orally administered antibiotics (kg/year) in New Zealand
Source: MAF (1999).
Table 7.
Quantities (kg) of active substance of antimicrobial drugs per antimicrobial class administered in food-producing animals in Kenya during 1995–1999
Source: Mitema et al. (2001).
Table 8.
Selected examples of commonly used veterinary antibiotics in animal agriculture and their important physical/chemical properties
pKa = acidity constant; pKb = basicity constant; Log Kow = octanol–water partition coefficient; MW = molecular weight.
Source: CAS, 2004, Thiele-Bruhn, 2003 and Hirsch et al., 1999.
a When individual values are not available, a range is given for the compound group.
Table 9.
Available literature values for partitioning coefficients of selected VAs in various environmental matrices
NR = not reported; Kd = soil partition coefficient; Koc = organic carbon normalized partition coefficient.
a pH values were after sorption experiment.
Table 10.
Available literature values (HL = half-life) for degradation of veterinary antibiotics in various environmental matrices
HL = half-life; a = first spike, b = second spike; NA = not available.
Sulfacetamide, sulfabenzamide, sulfamethoxypyridazine, carbutamide, sulfamerazine, sulfameter, sulfadoxine, sulfanilamide, sulfadimidine, sulfadiazine, sulfadimethoxine, sulfapyridine, sulfachloropyridazine.
Table 11.
Field-scale and column studies into the fate and transport of veterinary medicines
Y = yes, N = No.
M = manure, S= soil, IW = interstitial water, GW = groundwater, SW = surface water, DW= drainage water, OF = overland flow water, L = leachate, NA = not available.
Table 12.
Summary of results from column, lysimeter and field studies with veterinary medicines
S = soil, GW = groundwater, SW = surface water, DW = drainage water, OF = overland flow water, L = leachate, ND = not detected.
a Aga et al. (2003).
b Boxall et al. (2005).
c Blackwell et al. (2005).
d Burkhardt et al. (2005).
e Halling-Sørensen et al. (2005).f Hamscher et al. (2005).
g Krapac et al. (2005).
h Kay et al. (2004).
i Kay et al. (2005c).
j Kay et al. (2005b).
k Kreuzig and Holtge (2005).
l Kreuzig et al. (2005).
Table 13.
Selected examples of literature data on toxicity effects of commonly used animal antibiotics on soil organisms and plants
Abstract
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