How does physical activity improve adolescent resilience? Serial indirect effects via self-efficacy and basic psychological needs

Introduction

Under challenging conditions such as interpersonal tension and intense academic pressure, adolescents are vulnerable to the harmful effects of negative events (Yang et al., 2022), which leads to a notable increase in anxiety, depression, stress levels, and feelings of loneliness (Lee, 2020; Nkire et al., 2021). However, as Li et al. (2021) noted, despite many individuals facing the same ongoing challenges and crises, there are still variations among individual responses. This raises the question of why some adolescents are capable of recovering from and adapting to these challenges, while others are not. We suggest that certain students possess greater personal resilience, enabling them to more adeptly manage adverse events (Rayburn, Anderson & Sierra, 2021). In other words, resilience plays an important role in explaining such variance. It is widely recognized that personal resilience can be developed, reinforced, and sustained through physical activity (Ho et al., 2015). Despite the abundance of research suggesting a positive relationship between physical activity and adolescent resilience, our understanding of the underlying psychological mechanisms remains limited. Thus, examining how physical activity promotes teen resilience is vital. Recent studies have shown that the relationship between physical activity and resilience can be mediated by basic psychological needs and self-efficacy (Neumann et al., 2022; Xu et al., 2021). We aim to address this issue via a cross-sectional survey of high students investigating whether physical activity improves resilience by enhancing basic psychological needs and self-efficacy.

Resilience is a trait that enables an individual to adjust and adapt to life’s adversities or risks (Van der Merwe, Botha & Joubert, 2020). It also reflects the ability of an individual to adapt, recover, and maintain a positive outlook in the face of adversity, stress, and challenges (Hughes et al., 2021; Jackson, Firtko & Edenborough, 2007). It is not a fixed trait but rather a dynamic process that can be developed and strengthened over time through various coping strategies and protective factors (Kalisch, Müller & Tüscher, 2005). Physical activity plays an important role in building resilience (Carriedo et al., 2020; Ozkara et al., 2016). Individuals who engage in high levels of physical activity are more likely to develop high levels of resilience (Ho et al., 2015). Behavioral evidence supports the notion that physical activity has a beneficial influence on resilience by enhancing positive psychological states, optimizing stress reactivity, and protecting against the effects of stressful events (Arida & Teixeira-Machado, 2021; Li et al., 2021). Neuroimaging studies have also provided important evidence about the tight link between physical activity and resilience. Research has suggested that physical activity can facilitate resilience by promoting brain structure and function in neural circuits involved in self-regulation (for a review, see Belcher et al., 2021). For example, Dahl et al. (2017) reported that regular physical activity may positively affect prefrontal cortex brain structure and function by regulating bottom-up processing, thus strengthening resilience. In particular, aerobic exercise has the potential to influence the intrinsic functional organization of large-scale networks, such as cognitive control and motor networks, improving emotional and behavioral regulation (Krafft et al., 2014), thereby improving resilience. In summary, evidence indicates that physical activity is a key strategy for building resilience in adolescents.

It is of utmost importance to have a clear understanding of the mechanisms that underlie the positive impact of physical activity on resilience. The existing literature suggests that self-efficacy is not only a determinate but also an outcome of physical activity (Martin et al., 2015). Self-efficacy, as defined by Bandura (1977), refers to an individual’s belief in his or her ability to successfully perform a particular task. This finding indicates that individuals with high self-efficacy are more likely to have greater confidence in completing difficult tasks, are more willing to exert effort, and exhibit greater persistence in the face of adversity. Many studies have demonstrated that adolescents who regularly participate in physical activity exhibit a higher level of self-efficacy (Dishman et al., 2006; Wu et al., 2022). In particular, a study by Netz et al. (2005) found that moderate-intensity aerobic training had the greatest impact on improving self-efficacy levels in healthy adults. Zhao & Ma’s (2019) cross-sectional study revealed a significant positive correlation between physical activity and self-efficacy for high school students. Within the framework of the Positive Appraisal Style Theory of Resilience by Kalisch, Müller & Tüscher (2005), self-efficacy expectations have been found to have a beneficial association with stress resilience. A study performed by Sánchez-Teruel & Robles-Bello (2020) among young men in Morocco revealed that self-efficacy is one of the most predictable and positive factors affecting resilience. Thus, resilience and self-efficacy are closely intertwined. Further, McAuley et al. (2011) conducted a review and provided strong evidence that self-efficacy could mediate the association between physical activity and psychological outcomes. Taken together, these studies strongly support that self-efficacy plays a role in the buffering effect of physical activity and in how physical activity contributes to resilience.

Basic psychological needs are a core concept in self-determination theory (SDT). According to the SDT framework, basic psychological needs include autonomy, competence, and relatedness. These needs are essential for human thriving and wellbeing, as they serve as universal sources of nourishment for individuals (Ryan & Deci, 2000; Ryan & Deci, 2017). Wilson et al. (2008) suggested that the theory of basic psychological needs provides a promising framework for studying students’ psychological health and behavior and is important for promoting positive and healthy development in physical activity contexts. When students who actively participate in sports experience higher levels of relatedness need satisfaction than do non-sports active students during a physical education course (Burchard Erdvik et al., 2019). Physical activity is positively and significantly associated with basic psychological needs among adolescents (Xu et al., 2021). The greater their competence is, the greater their satisfaction with exercise (Wilson et al., 2006). A longitudinal study of Iranian students revealed that a 10-day physical activity intervention significantly increased the experience of basic psychological needs and decreased stress (Behzadnia & FatahModares, 2020). Furthermore, previous works have shown that greater resilience is correlated with better basic psychological needs (e.g., Lera & Abualkibash, 2022). Relatedness need may have the most significant effect (Naemi, 2018). Another study revealed that satisfaction of competence, but not autonomy or relatedness, was positively related to increased resilience (Neufeld & Malin, 2019). Overall, these streams of research provide a better understanding and valuable insights into aspects of basic psychological needs as potential mediators of in the relationship between physical activity and an individual’s resilience.

Interestingly, the extant literature highlights the association between basic psychological needs and self-efficacy among adolescents (Vayskarami et al., 2019; Zhen et al., 2017). Conceptually, competence is a core component of basic psychological needs and self-efficacy, as it refers to an individual’s self-perceptions or self-judgment of their skills and capabilities. When an individual’s competence needs are satisfied, they are more likely to experience a stronger sense of self-efficacy. Specifically, the satisfaction of competence needs in an exercise process may lead individuals to feel that they have the ability to participate in and complete various exercise activities, resulting in a higher perception of physical self-efficacy (Zhang & Xi, 2010). Macakova & Wood (2022) found that both competence and relatedness needs were positively associated with self-efficacy. This finding suggests that individuals who have their competence and relatedness needs met are more likely to have a stronger sense of self-efficacy. Moreover, when an individual’s relatedness needs are fulfilled, it can facilitate the development of a robust and optimal social network, which can better allow them to cope with adversities through effective support mechanisms (Nawaz & Gilani, 2011) and will contribute to stronger self-efficacy. The fulfillment of autonomy can signify not only an individual’s perception of their own competency but also their ability to regulate their behavior based on their own will, which can enhance their self-efficacy (Ryan & Deci, 2000). Specifically, autonomy, competence, and relatedness needs have been found to be significant predictors of self-efficacy. As previously mentioned, basic psychological needs and self-efficacy may serve as factors contributing to the indirect effects of physical activity on resilience.

As mentioned above, despite previous studies highlighting positive relationships among physical exercise, basic psychological needs, self-efficacy, and resilience, there has been a lack of examination of these variables as interactive systems. Furthermore, existing research on the relationship between physical activity and resilience has focused primarily on college students (Xu et al., 2021; Zhang et al., 2022). Thus, we aimed to investigate the psychological mechanism of the effect of physical activity on resilience in high school students. Our research provides theoretical evidence for understanding the relationship among high school students and developing targeted interventions or programs designed to enhance adolescent resilience. To this end, we propose the following hypotheses: (H1) there is a direct positive association between physical activity and resilience; (H2) physical activity has an indirect effect on resilience through satisfying basic psychological needs; (H3) physical activity has an indirect effect on resilience through improving the levels of self-efficacy; and (H4) physical activity improves resilience through serial indirect effects of basic psychological needs and self-efficacy.

Methods

Results

Mediation analysis

A structural equation model was established using Amos software to explore the serial mediating effect of physical exercise on adolescents’ resilience between basic psychological needs and self-efficacy. The model’s fitting indices were extremely good, with χ²/df = 6.85, RMSEA = 0.06, CFI = 0.98, NFI = 0.98, GFI = 0.98, and AGFI = 0.96. In the serial mediation analysis, all the direct effects estimated from path analysis are shown in Fig. 1. According to this model, and independent of sex, the total effect of physical activity on resilience was found to be significant (β = 0.59, SE = 0.03, p < 0.01, 95% CI [0.54–0.64]). There was a statistically significant direct association between physical activity and resilience (β = 0.24, SE = 0.03, p < 0.01, 95% CI [0.19–0.30]), which supports Hypothesis 1. Similarly, physical activity had a strong positive association with adolescents’ basic psychological needs (β = 0.42, SE = 0.03, p < 0.01, 95% CI [0.37–0.48]) and self-efficacy (β = 0.24, SE = 0.03, p < 0.01, 95% CI [0.18–0.30]). There were also significant direct paths from basic psychological needs to resilience (β = 0.39, SE = 0.03, p < 0.01, 95% CI [0.32–0.45]) and from self-efficacy to resilience (β = 0.38, SE = 0.03, p < 0.1, 95% CI [0.32–0.45]). In a similar vein, basic psychological needs had a significant positive association with self-efficacy (β = 0.54, SE = 0.03, p < 0.01, 95% CI [0.48–0.59]).

Next, the significant indirect effects of all paths of physical activity on resilience are presented in Table 2. First, higher levels of physical activity were associated with higher levels of basic psychological need satisfaction and, in turn, greater resilience (β = 0.16, SE = 0.02, p < 0.001, 95% CI [0.13–0.20]); thus, Hypothesis 2 was supported. Second, a noteworthy indirect pathway was observed, indicating that physical activity exerted a significant influence on resilience solely through self-efficacy (β = 0.09, SE = 0.02, p < 0.01, 95% CI [0.07–0.13]) and supporting Hypothesis 3. Finally, there was a significant indirect pathway for physical activity through basic psychological needs and self-efficacy in a serial fashion (β = 0.09, SE = 0.02, p < 0.01, 95% CI [0.07–0.13]); great levels of physical activity were linked to the fulfillment of basic psychological needs and higher levels of self-efficacy and, in turn, ultimately contributing to the bolstering of resilience. Hence, Hypothesis 4 was also supported.

Table 2:

Toal, direct and indirect effects between physical activity and resilience (N = 1,732).

Relationship	Effect	Boot SE	95% CI
			Low	High
Total effects
Physical exercise → Resilience	0.59	0.03	0.54	0.64
Direct effect
Physical exercise → Resilience	0.24	0.03	0.19	0.30
Indirect effects
Physical exercise → Basic psychological needs → Resilience	0.16	0.02	0.13	0.20
Physical exercise → Self-efficacy → Resilience	0.09	0.02	0.07	0.13
Physical exercise → Basic psychological needs → Self-efficacy → Resilience	0.09	0.01	0.07	0.11

DOI: 10.7717/peerj.17059/table-2

Notes:

SE

standard error

CI

confidence interval

Discussion

This investigation aimed to explore the direct and indirect effects of physical exercise on resilience. Our results suggest that the effect of physical activity is associated with resilience through the following mechanisms: (i) indirectly by satisfying of basic psychological needs; (ii) indirectly via higher levels of self-efficacy; and (iii) indirectly via the fulfillment of basic psychological needs and, sequentially, increased self-efficacy. As expected, physical activity was related to resilience but also indirectly related to basic psychological needs, and indirectly related to self-efficacy (Neumann et al., 2022; Xu et al., 2021). Additionally, engaging in physical activity was shown to contribute to increased levels of basic psychological needs, subsequently leading to greater self-efficacy and ultimately higher levels of resilience.

Our results are consistent with earlier findings suggesting that physical activity serves as a resilience factor among adolescents (Dunston et al., 2022; San Román-Mata et al., 2020). On the one hand, aerobic exercise is a potential coping resource for boosting adolescents’ resilience by enhancing cognitive function and mental health (Chen et al., 2017) and positively influencing mood states such as depression and anxiety (Eöry et al., 2021). Thus, adolescents can obtain a sense of psychological and physical pleasure and satisfaction through physical activity, leading to positive changes in psychological functions (Li et al., 2021). On the other hand, the neuroplastic effects induced by physical activity help develop adolescents’ resilience by strengthening individual brain regions and large-scale neural circuits (Belcher et al., 2021). These changes contribute to emotional self-regulation and may help mitigate the risk of emotional heathy problems during this critical yet vulnerable period. In summary, while it is clear that physical activity has direct and beneficial effects on resilience, the psychological and neural mechanisms underlying this relationship are complex and diverse.

As expected, across bivariate and multivariate analyses and across indirect models, basic psychological needs were a significant mediator linking physical activity and resilience. Our findings align with those of previous studies demonstrating that satisfying basic psychological needs in the context of physical activity can significantly predict resilience in adolescents (Franco & Coterón, 2017; Leversen et al., 2012). On the one hand, physical activity correlated positively with basic psychological needs, as reported in Franco & Coterón’s study (2017). One possible explanation is that physical activity provides individuals with a sense of autonomy or control over their bodies and their lives (Teixeira et al., 2012). Engaging in physical activity allows individuals to choose when, where and how they exercise, which can increase feelings of self-determination and competence. When individuals improve their exercise levels, learn sports skills, or reach exercise goals, it can provide a sense of accomplishment and progress, thereby increasing their feelings of self-determination and competence. On the other hand, basic psychological needs may promote well-being and strengthen inner resources related to resilience; this positive influence helps individuals develop the resilience they need. Specifically, the satisfaction of relatedness needs promotes an individual’s perception of self-value and importance (Xu et al., 2021). When the autonomy needs are met, individuals can perceive an enhanced sense of control over their environment (Ntoumanis, Edmunds & Duda, 2009). Individuals whose competence needs are satisfied are more inclined to experience intrinsic motivation and perseverance, ultimately enabling them to sustain a high level of effort even in the face of adversity (Grolnick, Deci & Ryan, 1997).

In a similar vein, our data revealed that engaging in physical activity significantly predicts self-efficacy, which in turn predicts adolescent resilience. These findings are consistent with our predictions and prior research that physical activity can serve as an efficacy experience in the physical domain, thereby promoting psychological wellbeing (McAuley et al., 2005). Engaging in physical activity provides individuals with opportunities to acquire skills, overcome challenges, and accomplish desired tasks. These mastery experiences contribute to an increase in self-efficacy (Bandura, 2000; Bautista, 2011). Regular physical activity is associated with various physiological and psychological benefits, such as increasing self-esteem, enhancing mood, reducing stress, and improving cognitive function (Mahindru, Patil & Agrawal, 2023). Experiencing these positive changes reinforces individuals’ belief in their capabilities and contributes to a sense of self-efficacy. On the other hand, self-efficacy beliefs are instrumental in promoting resilience in the face of adversity by activating affective, motivational, and behavioral mechanisms. Consequently, self-efficacy is often conceptualized as an essential component of resilience. The current study further strengthens the evidence that self-efficacy serves as a crucial psychological mechanism underlying the role of physical activity in enhancing resilience.

Previous research has shown that fulfilling basic psychological needs is a significant predictive factor of self-efficacy (e.g., Cho et al., 2015). Our results align with previous research revealing significant associations between basic psychological needs and self-efficacy. Therefore, the positive association between physical activity and resilience was also explained through the fulfillment of basic psychological needs in conjunction with the increase in self-efficacy. SDT posits that satisfying basic psychological needs for autonomy, competence, and relatedness is an innate drive and essential for ongoing psychological growth, internalization, and well-being (Van den Broeck et al., 2016), which, in turn, predicts more situation-specific self-efficacy (Diseth, Danielsen & Samdal, 2012). Moreover, the empirical research conducted by Sarıet al. (2011) revealed that the satisfaction of basic psychological needs significantly contributed to the perception of self-efficacy among students. To summarize, this paper provides an initial confirmation and expansion of evidence supporting the concept of serial mediation between physical activity and students’ resilience.

These findings provide strong support for the positive correlation between physical activity and resilience. Consequently, educators can design interventions promoting physical activity programs tailored to individuals’ preferences and psychological needs. By cultivating an environment that encourages autonomy, relatedness, and competence, individuals are more likely to willingly engaged in physical activities, thereby enhancing their resilience. Additionally, therapists and counselors can incorporate physical activity into therapeutic interventions, recognizing its potential to not only improve physical health but also bolster emotional resilience. By integrating physical activities that align with individuals’ interests and psychological needs, therapy sessions can become more comprehensive and effective, promoting both physical and mental well-being.

Like other studies, this research has several limitations that should be acknowledged. First, although significant and positive relationships between various variables were observed, the cross-sectional design precluded establishing the exact causal relationships between them. Second, it should be noted that while this study investigated the link between basic psychological needs and physical activity, self-efficacy, and resilience, it did not address the issue of whether autonomy, competence, and relatedness needs are independently important in the present setting. As suggested by Van der Kaap-Deeder et al. (2017), each psychological need may contribute uniquely to adolescents’ well-being and may play a more distinct role in more specific domains. Therefore, future work should examine the association between each psychological need and the links between physical activity and resilience or self-efficacy. Third, the present study also did not comprehensively estimate the association between the type, duration, intensity, and frequency of physical activity, so further empirical and qualitative work is necessary to determine the effects of these factors.

Conclusions

It seems that this is the first study to investigate physical activity, basic psychological needs, self-efficacy, and resilience as an interactive system. Our analysis has revealed a direct and significant correlation between physical activity and resilience among adolescents. We also found that the relationship between physical activity and resilience is influenced by the sequential associations between basic psychological needs and self-efficacy. Regular physical activity can induce positive psychology changes, ultimately contributing to the enhancement of resilience levels. Although further research is needed, our findings suggest that the fulfillment of basic psychological needs and higher levels of self-efficacy may play pivotal roles in improving resilience among adolescents within the context of a physical activity environment.

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