Abstract
Visually guided action in humans occurs in part through the use of control laws, which are dynamical equations in which optical information modulates an actor’s interaction with their environment. For example, humans locomote through the center of a corridor by equalizing the speed of optic flow across their left and right fields of view. This optic flow equalization control law relies on a crucial assumption: that the shape of the body relative to the eyes is laterally symmetrical. Humans engaging in tool use are often producing person-plus-object systems that are not laterally symmetrical, such as when they hold a tool, bag, or briefcase in one hand, or when they drive a vehicle. This experiment tests a new generalized control law for centered steering that accounts for asymmetries produced by external tool use. Participants held an asymmetrical bar and centered themselves within a virtual moving hallway while the speed of the virtual walls were systematically changed. The results demonstrate that humans engaging with an asymmetrical tool can (1) perceive the asymmetry of a person-plus-object system, (2) use that information to modulate the use of optic flow equalization control laws for centered steering, and (3) functionally incorporate the asymmetrical tool into their perception-action system to successfully navigate their environment.
This is a preview of subscription content, log in via an institution to check access.
Similar content being viewed by others
Data availability
The data for these experiments can be obtained from the first author. Email: klucait@g.clemson.edu
Code availability
Not applicable.
References
Armbrüster, C., Wolter, M., Kuhlen, T., Spijkers, W., & Fimm, B. (2008). Depth perception in virtual reality: Distance estimations in peri- and extrapersonal space. CyberPsychology & Behavior, 11(1), 9–15. https://doi.org/10.1089/cpb.2007.9935
Bhagavatula, P. S., Claudianos, C., Ibbotson, M. R., & Srinivasan, M. V. (2011). Optic flow cues guide flight in birds. Current Biology, 21(21), 1794–1799. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cub.2011.09.009
Bickel, R. (2007). Multilevel analysis for applied regression: It’s just regression! Guilford Press.
Blau, J. J. C., & Wagman, J. B. (2023). Introduction to ecological psychology: A lawful approach to perceiving, acting, and cognizing. Routledge.
Chou, Y. H., Wagenaar, R. C., Saltzman, E., Giphart, J. E., Young, D., Davidsdottir, R., & Cronin-Golomb, A. (2009). Effects of optic flow speed and lateral flow asymmetry on locomotion in younger and older adults: A virtual reality study. The Journals of Gerontology Series B: Psychological Sciences and Social Sciences, 64B(2), 222–231. https://doi.org/10.1093/geronb/gbp003
Cohen, J., Cohen, P., West, S., & Aiken, L. (2003). Applied multiple regression (3rd ed.). Erlbaum.
Collett, T. S., & Land, M. F. (1975). Visual control of flight behaviour in the hoverfly Syritta pipiens L.. Journal of Comparative Physiology A, 99(1), 1–66. https://doi.org/10.1007/BF01464710
Day, B., Ebrahimi, E., Hartman, L. S., Pagano, C. C., & Babu, S. V. (2017). Calibration to tool use during visually-guided reaching. Acta Psychologica, 181, 27–39. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.actpsy.2017.09.014
Duchon, A. P., & Warren, W. H. (1994). Robot navigation from a Gibsonian viewpoint. Proceedings of IEEE International Conference on Systems, Man and Cybernetics, 3, 2272–2277. https://doi.org/10.1109/ICSMC.1994.400203
Duchon, A. P., & Warren, W. H. (2002). A visual equalization strategy for locomotor control: Of honeybees, robots, and humans. Psychological Science, 13(3), 272–278. https://doi.org/10.1111/1467-9280.00450
Duchon, A. P., Kaelbling, L. P., & Warren, W. H. (1998). Ecological robotics. Adaptive Behavior, 6(3/4), 473–507. https://doi.org/10.1177/105971239800600306
Durgin, F. H., Pelah, A., Fox, L. F., Lewis, J., Kane, R., & Walley, K. A. (2005). Self-motion perception during locomotor recalibration: More than meets the eye. Journal of Experimental Psychology: Human Perception and Performance, 31(3), 398–419. https://doi.org/10.1037/0096-1523.31.3.398
Fajen, B. R. (2007). Affordance-based control of visually guided action. Ecological Psychology, 19(4), 383–410. https://doi.org/10.1080/10407410701557877
Fajen, B. R. (2021). Visual Control of Locomotion. Cambridge University Press.
Geuss, M. N., Stefanucci, J. K., Creem-Regehr, S. H., & Thompson, W. B. (2012). Effect of viewing plane on perceived distances in real and virtual environments. Journal of Experimental Psychology: Human Perception and Performance, 38(5), 1242–1253. https://doi.org/10.1037/a0027524
Gibson, J. J. (1950). The Perception of the visual world. Houghton Mifflin Company.
Gibson, J. J. (1958). Visually controlled locomotion and visual orientation in animals. British Journal of Psychology, 49(3), 182–194. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.2044-8295.1958.tb00656.x
Gibson, J. J. (1961). Ecological optics. Vision Research, 1, 253–262.
Gibson, J. J. (1966). The senses considered as perceptual systems. Houghton Mifflin Company.
Gibson, J. J. (1979). The ecological approach to visual perception. Houghton Mifflin.
Gibson, E. J., Gibson, J. J., Smith, O. W., & Flock, H. (1959). Motion parallax as a determinant of perceived depth. Journal of Experimental Psychology, 58(1), 40–51. https://doi.org/10.1037/h0043883
Hackney, A. L., Cinelli, M. E., & Frank, J. S. (2014). Is the critical point for aperture crossing adapted to the person-plus-object system? Journal of Motor Behavior, 46(5), 319–327. https://doi.org/10.1080/00222895.2014.913002
Hartman, L. (2018). Perception-action system calibration in the presence of stable and unstable perceptual perturbations (Publication No. 2144) [Doctoral Dissertation, Clemson University]. Tiger Prints. https://tigerprints.clemson.edu/all_dissertations/2144
Helmholtz, H. V. (1925). Physiological optics (3rd ed.). Optical Society of America.
Higuchi, T., Cinelli, M. E., & Patla, A. E. (2009). Gaze behavior during locomotion through apertures: The effect of locomotion forms. Human Movement Science, 28(6), 760–771. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.humov.2009.07.012
Higuchi, T., Murai, G., Kijima, A., Seya, Y., Wagman, J. B., & Imanaka, K. (2011). Athletic experience influences shoulder rotations when running through apertures. Human Movement Science, 30(3), 534–549. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.humov.2010.08.003
Higuchi, T., Chiba, M., & Kusumi, M. (2015). Locomotion through apertures as the person-plus-object system: When the body is off the center. Paper presented at the 18th international conference on perception and action.
Hofmann, D. A. (1997). An overview of the logic and rationale of hierarchical linear models. Journal of Management, 23(6), 723–744. https://doi.org/10.1177/014920639702300602
Kennedy, R. S., Lane, N. E., Berbaum, K. S., & Lilienthal, M. G. (1993). Simulator sickness questionnaire: An enhanced method for quantifying simulator sickness. The International Journal of Aviation Psychology, 3(3), 203–220.
Koenderink, J. J. (1986). Optic flow. Vision Research, 26(1), 161–180.
Kountouriotis, G. K., Shire, K. A., Mole, C. D., Gardner, P. H., Merat, N., & Wilkie, R. M. (2013). Optic flow asymmetries bias high-speed steering along roads. Journal of Vision, 13(10), 23–23. https://doi.org/10.1167/13.10.23
Kroll, V., & Crundall, D. (2019). Aperture judgement in fire-appliance drivers. Transportation Research Part F: Traffic Psychology and Behaviour, 63, 55–66. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.trf.2019.03.012
Lee, D. N. (1976). A theory of visual control of braking based on information about time-to-collision. Perception, 5, 437–459.
Lee, D. N. (1980). The optic flow field: The foundation of vision. Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society of London B, Biological Sciences, 290(1038), 169–179. https://doi.org/10.1098/rstb.1980.0089
Lee, D. N., & Aronson, E. (1974). Visual proprioceptive control of standing in human infants. Perception & Psychophysics, 15(3), 529–532. https://doi.org/10.3758/BF03199297
Lee, D. N., & Lishman, R. (1977). Visual control of locomotion. Scandinavian Journal of Psychology, 18(1), 224–230.
Li, L., & Chen, J. (2010). Relative contributions of optic flow, bearing, and splay angle information to lane keeping. Journal of Vision, 10(11), 16–16. https://doi.org/10.1167/10.11.16
Li, L., & Warren, W. H. (2000). Perception of heading during rotation: Sufficiency of dense motion parallax and reference objects. Vision Research, 40(28), 3873–3894. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0042-6989(00)00196-6
Lishman, J. R., & Lee, D. N. (1973). The autonomy of visual kinaesthesis. Perception, 2(3), 287–294. https://doi.org/10.1068/p020287
Loomis, J. M., & Knapp, J. M. (2003). Visual perception of egocentric distance in real and virtual environments. In L. J. Hettinger & M. W. Haas (Eds.), Virtual and adaptive environments: Applications, implications, and human performance issues (pp. 21–46). Erlbaum.
Lucaites, K. M., & Pagano, C. C. (2018). Affordance perception by users of assistive walking devices. Proceedings of the Human Factors and Ergonomics Society Annual Meeting, 62(1), 1744–1748. https://doi.org/10.1177/1541931218621207
Lucaites, K. M., Venkatakrishnan, R., Venkatakrishnan, R., Bhargava, A., Pagano, C. C. (2020). Predictability and variability of a dynamic environment impact affordance judgments. Ecological Psychology, 1–20. https://doi.org/10.1080/10407413.2020.1741323
Maas, C. J. M., & Hox, J. J. (2005). Sufficient sample sizes for multilevel modeling. Methodology, 1(3), 86–92.
Machado-León, J. L., de Oña, J., de Oña, R., Eboli, L., & Mazzulla, G. (2016). Socio-economic and driving experience factors affecting drivers’ perceptions of traffic crash risk. Transportation Research Part F: Traffic Psychology and Behaviour, 37, 41–51. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.trf.2015.11.010
Mangalam, M., Fragaszy, D. M., Wagman, J. B., Day, B. M., Kelty-Stephen, D. G., Bongers, R. M., Stout, D. W., & Osiurak, F. (2022). On the psychological origins of tool use. Neuroscience and Behavioral Reviews, 134, 104521.
Muroi, D., & Higuchi, T. (2017). Walking through an aperture with visual information obtained at a distance. Experimental Brain Research, 235(1), 219–230. https://doi.org/10.1007/s00221-016-4781-7
Pagano, C. C., & Day, B. (2020). Ecological interface design inspired by "The Meaningful Environment". In J. Wagman & J. Blau (Eds.), Perception as information detection: Reflections on Gibson’s ecological approach to visual perception (pp. 37–50). Routledge.
Petrucci, M. N., Horn, G. P., Rosengren, K. S., & Hsiao-Wecksler, E. T. (2016). Inaccuracy of affordance judgments for firefighters wearing personal protective equipment. Ecological Psychology, 28(2), 108–126. https://doi.org/10.1080/10407413.2016.1163987
Prokop, T., Schubert, M., & Berger, W. (1997). Visual influence on human locomotion modulation to changes in optic flow: Modulation to changes in optic flow. Experimental Brain Research, 114(1), 63–70. https://doi.org/10.1007/PL00005624
Reed, E. S. (1996). Encountering the world: Toward an ecological psychology. Oxford University Press.
Regan, D., & Beverley, K. I. (1982). How do we avoid confounding the direction we are looking and the direction we are moving? Science, 215(4529), 194–196.
Rieser, J. J., Pick, H. L., Ashmead, D. H., & Garing, A. E. (1995). Calibration of human locomotion and models of perceptual-motor organization. Journal of Experimental Psychology: Human Perception and Performance, 21(3), 480.
Sarre, G., Berard, J., Fung, J., & Lamontagne, A. (2008). Steering behaviour can be modulated by different optic flows during walking. Neuroscience Letters, 436(2), 96–101. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.neulet.2008.02.049
Schubert, M., Prokop, T., Brocke, F., & Berger, W. (2005). Visual kinesthesia and locomotion in Parkinson’s disease. Movement Disorders, 20(2), 141–150. https://doi.org/10.1002/mds.20281
Solini, H. M., Bhargava, A., & Pagano, C. C. (2021). The effects of testing environment, experimental design, and ankle loading on calibration to perturbed optic flow during locomotion. Attention, Perception, & Psychophysics, 83(1), 497–511. https://doi.org/10.3758/s13414-020-02200-1
Srinivasan, M. V. (1992). How bees exploit optic flow: Behavioural experiments and neural models. Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society of London Series B Biological Sciences, 337(1281), 253–259. https://doi.org/10.1098/rstb.1992.0103
Srinivasan, M. V. (1998). Insects as Gibsonian animals. Ecological Psychology, 10(3/4), 251–270.
Srinivasan, M. V., Lehrer, M., Kirchner, W. H., & Zhang, S. W. (1991). Range perception through apparent image speed in freely flying honeybees. Visual Neuroscience, 6(5), 519–535. https://doi.org/10.1017/S095252380000136X
Turvey, M. T. (1992). Affordances and prospective control: An outline of the ontology. Ecological Psychology, 4(3), 173–187. https://doi.org/10.1207/s15326969eco0403_3
Turvey, M. T. (2019). Lectures on perception: An ecological perspective. Routledge.
Turvey, M. T., Shaw, R. E., Reed, E. S., & Mace, W. M. (1981). Ecological laws of perceiving and acting: In reply to Fodor and Pylyshyn. Cognition, 9, 237–304.
Wagman, J. B., & Malek, E. A. (2007). Perception of whether an object can be carried through an aperture depends on anticipated speed. Experimental Psychology, 54(1), 54–61. https://doi.org/10.1027/1618-3169.54.1.54
Wagner, H. (1982). Flow-field variables trigger landing in flies. Nature, 297(5862), 147–148. https://doi.org/10.1038/297147a0
Wagner, H. (1986). Flight performance and visual control of flight of the free-flying housefly (Musca domestica L.) II. Pursuit of targets. Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society of London B, Biological Sciences, 312(1158).
Wann, J. P., Rushton, S., & Mon-Williams, M. (1995). Natural problems for stereoscopic depth perception in virtual environments. Vision Research, 35(19), 2731–2736. https://doi.org/10.1016/0042-6989(95)00018-U
Warren, W. H. (1988). Action modes and laws of control for the visual guidance of action. In O. G. Meijer & K. Roth (Eds.), Advances in psychology (50th ed., pp. 339–379). Elsevier. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0166-4115(08)62564-9
Warren, W. H. (1998). Visually controlled locomotion: 40 years later. Ecological Psychology, 10(3–4), 177–219. https://doi.org/10.1080/10407413.1998.9652682
Warren, W. H. (2006). The dynamics of perception and action. Psychological Review, 113(2), 358–389. https://doi.org/10.1037/0033-295X.113.2.358
Warren, W. H., & Fajen, B. R. (2004). From optic flow to laws of control. In L. M. Vaina, S. A. Beardsley, & S. K. Rushton (Eds.), Optic flow and beyond (pp. 307–337). Springer Netherlands. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-1-4020-2092-6_14
Warren, W. H., Kay, B. A., & Yilmaz, E. H. (1996). Visual control of posture during walking: Functional specificity. Journal of Experimental Psychology: Human Perception and Performance, 22(4), 818–838.
Watanabe, R., Wagman, J. B., & Higuchi, T. (2019). Dynamic Touch by Hand and Head During Walking: Protective Behavior for the Head? Journal of Motor Behavior, 51(60), 655–667.
Willemsen, P., Gooch, A. A., Thompson, W. B., & Creem-Regehr, S. H. (2008). Effects of stereo viewing conditions on distance perception in virtual environments. Presence: Teleoperators and Virtual Environments, 17(1), 91–101.
Winter, D. A. (2005). Biomechanics and motor control of human movement (3rd ed.). Wiley.
Woltman, H., Feldstain, A., MacKay, J. C., & Rocchi, M. (2012). An introduction to hierarchical linear modeling. Tutorials in Quantitative Methods for Psychology, 8(1), 52–69. https://doi.org/10.20982/tqmp.08.1.p052
Yilmaz, E. H., & Warren, W. H. (1995). Visual control of braking: A test of the r hypothesis. Journal of Experimental Psychology: Human Perception and Performance, 21(5), 996–1014.
Zhao, H., & Warren, W. H. (2015). On-line and model-based approaches to the visual control of action. Vision Research, 110, 190–202. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.visres.2014.10.008
Open Practices Statement
None of the data or materials for the experiments reported here is available, and none of the experiments was preregistered.
Funding
This research was not supported by any agency outside of Clemson University.
Author information
Authors and Affiliations
Contributions
Katie Lucaites: Conceptualization, Methodology, Formal analysis, Investigation, Data Curation, Writing—Original Draft, Writing—Review & Editing, Visualization, Project administration. Rohith Venkatakrishnan: Software, including the creation of the virtual environment and configuring the motion tracking. Roshan Venkatakrishnan: Software, including the creation of the virtual environment and configuring the motion tracking. Christopher C. Pagano: Conceptualization, Methodology, Writing—Review & Editing, Supervision.
Corresponding author
Ethics declarations
Conflicts of interest/Competing interests
The authors have no conflicts of interest to declare.
Ethics approval
This research was approved by the Institutional Review Board (IRB) of Clemson University.
Consent to participate
All research participants provided written informed consent in accordance with the procedures of Clemson University’s IRB
Consent for publication
Not applicable.
Additional information
Publisher's Note
Springer Nature remains neutral with regard to jurisdictional claims in published maps and institutional affiliations.
Rights and permissions
About this article
Cite this article
Lucaites, K.M., Venkatakrishnan, R., Venkatakrishnan, R. et al. Generalizing the optic flow equalization control law to an asymmetrical person-plus-object system. Atten Percept Psychophys 85, 2337–2355 (2023). https://doi.org/10.3758/s13414-023-02777-3
Accepted:
Published:
Issue Date:
DOI: https://doi.org/10.3758/s13414-023-02777-3