Abstract
Five questions concerning the properties of spatial representations are explored. (1) How accurately does a spatial representation correspond to the true scene? (2) If inaccurate, how does it differ? (3) Are representations of a familiar scene more accurate than those of an unfamiliar one? (4) Do representations of a scene currently in view differ from those retained in memory? (5) Do the representations of the blind have properties comparable to those-of the sighted? Seven sighted and 7 highly mobile blind subjects, all familiar with a room, and 6 sighted subjects unfamiliar with it, were asked to estimate the absolute distances between 10 salient objects in the room. The 14 familiar subjects made their estimates twice: while they were in the room, and while they were remote from it. Regression analyses showed that the estimates of all subjects had strong metric properties, being linearly related to true distance, with a true zero point; and multidimensional scaling showed that all subjects produced distance estimates that could be scaled in two dimensions to closely match the actual locations of the objects. Familiarity had no effect. The effect of location of testing was the same for both the sighted and the blind: all subjects displayed better spatial knowledge when tested in the room; and all subjects underestimated true distance substantially when tested out of the room. The results showed no qualitative differences as a function of blindness, at least for these highly skilled blind travelers.
Article PDF
Similar content being viewed by others
Avoid common mistakes on your manuscript.
References
Brambring, M. (1985). Mobility and orientation processes of the blind. In D. H. Warren & E. R. Strelow (Eds.),Electronic spatial sensing for the blind (pp. 493–508). The Hague: Martinus Nijhoff.
Foulke, E. (1985). The cognitive foundations of mobility. In D. H, Warren & E. R. Strelow (Eds.),Electronic spatial sensing for the blind (pp. 463–486). The Hague: Martinus Nijhoff.
Haber, R. N. (1985a). Toward a theory of the perceived spatial layout of scenes.Computer Vision, Graphics & Image Processing,6, 282–321.
Haber, R. N. (1985b). Understanding perceived spatial layout of scenes: A prerequisite for protheses for blind travelers. In D. H. Warren and E. R. Strelow (Eds.),Electronic spatial sensing for the blind (pp. 431–461). The Hague: Martinus Nijhoff.
Haber, R. N. (1990). Dynamic stimuli and active perceiving in human visual perception. InSensor fusion H: Human and machine strategies (pp. 3–29). Bellingham, WA: The Society of Photo-Optic Instrumentation Engineers.
Haber, R. N., &Haber, L. (1991), Why mobile robots need a spatial memory. InSensor fusion HI: Human & machine strategies (pp. 815–823). Bellingham, WA: The Society of Photo-Optic Instrumentation Engineers.
Haber, R, N., & Haber, L. (1993).Measuring the invisible: Spatial representations and their assessment. Manuscript submitted for publication.
Heller, M. A., &Kennedy, J. M. (1990). Perspective talcing, pictures, and the blind.Perception & Psychophysics,48, 459–466.
Hill, E. W., &Ponder, P. (1976).Orientation and mobility techniques: A guide for the practitioner. New York: American Foundation for the Blind.
Hollyfield, R. L., &Foulke, E. (1983). The spatial cognition of blind pedestrians.Journal of Visual Impairment & Blindness,9, 204–210.
Kosslyn, S. M., Pick, H. L., Jr., &Farello, G. R. (1974). Cognitive maps in children and men.Child Development,45, 707–716.
Krumhansl, C. L. (1979). The psychological representation of musical pitch in a tonal context.Cognitive Psychology,11, 346–374.
Kruskal, J. B., &Wish, M. (1978).Multidimensional scaling. London: Sage University Papers.
Landau, B. (1988). The construction and use of spatial knowledge in blind and sighted children. In J. Stiles-Davis, M. Kritchevsky, & U. Bellugi (Eds.),Spatial cognition: Brain bases and development (pp. 343–371). Hillsdale, NJ: Erlbaum.
Lederman, S. J., Klatzky, R. L., &Barber, P. (1985). Spatial-and movement-based heuristics for encoding pattern information through touch.Journal of Experimental Psychology: General,114, 33–49,
Levin, C. A. (1992).A case against the use of the method of triadic comparisons. Manuscript submitted for publication.
Levin, C. A., & Haber, R. N. (in press). The role of visual angle as a determiner of perceived inter-object distance.Perception & Psychophysics.
Lockman, J. J., Rieser, J. J., &Pick, H. L., Jr. (1981). Assessing blind travelers’ knowledge of spatial layout.Journal of Visual Impairment & Blindness,7, 321–326.
Loomis, J. M., Klatzky, R. L., Golledge, R. G., Cicinelli, J., Pellegrjno, J., & Fry, P. (in press). Navigation without vision: Spatial competence of blind and sighted. Journal of Experimental Psychology: General,
Przeorek, J. (1986).The effects of different viewing distances, viewing levels, viewing perspectives, and walking through a scene on the perception of the layout of space. Unpublished masters thesis, University of Illinois at Chicago.
Rieser, J. J., Guth, D. A., &Hill, E. W. (1986). Sensitivity of perspective structure while walking without vision.Perception,15, 173–188.
Rieser, J. J., Hill, E. W., Talor, C. R., Bradfield, A., &Rosen, S. (1992). Visual experience, visual field size, and the development of nonvisual sensitivity to the spatial structure of outdoor neighborhoods explored by walking.Journal of Experimental Psychology: General,121, 210–221.
Rieser, J. J., Lockman, J. J., &Pick, H. L., Jr. (1980). The role of visual experience in knowledge of spatial layout.Perception & Psychophysics,28, 185–190.
Siegel, A. W., &White, S. H. (1975). Development of spatial representations of large scale environments. In H. W. Reese (Ed.),Advances in child development and behavior (Vol. 10, pp. 9–55). New York: Academic Press.
Toye, R. C. (1986). The effect of viewing position on the perceived layout of space.Perception & Psychophysics,40, 85–92.
Tversky, B. (1981). Distortion in cognitive maps.Cognitive Psychology,13, 407–433.
Wagner, M. (1985). The metric of visual space.Perception & Psychophysics,38, 483–495.
Warren, D. H. (1984).Blindness and early childhood development (2nd ed.). New York: American Foundation for the Blind.
Wiest, W. M., &Bell, B. (1985). Stevens’s exponent for psychophysical scaling of perceived, remembered, and inferred distance.Psychological Bulletin,98, 457–470.
Wilkinson, L. (1986).SYSTAT: A statistical package. Evanston, IL: SYSTAT, Inc.
Author information
Authors and Affiliations
Additional information
Partial support for this project was provided by two research contracts from the Veterans Administration Rehabilitation Research and Development Research Program (C448-R and C995-PA) to the Rehabilitation Research and Development Center at Hines VA Hospital, and through contracts from Hines VA Hospital to the University of Illinois, Chicago. Partial support was also provided by a research grant from the National Eye Institute (EY07801) to the first two authors.
Rights and permissions
About this article
Cite this article
Haber, R.N., Haber, L.R., Levin, C.A. et al. Properties of spatial representations: Data from sighted and blind subjects. Perception & Psychophysics 54, 1–13 (1993). https://doi.org/10.3758/BF03206932
Received:
Accepted:
Issue Date:
DOI: https://doi.org/10.3758/BF03206932