Impact of E-Government Initiatives to Combat Corruption Mediating by Behavioral Intention: A Quantitative Analysis from Emerging Economies

Abstract

E-government has developed the intention of achieving smart governance, and adoption of E-government has been recommended to eradicate corruption because it is perceived to be transparent and accountable. The purpose of this study is to examine whether the implementation of E-government in emerging economies is beneficial in eradicating corruption. The findings of this study, which employed a quantitative approach, demonstrated the significant ramifications of e-government in combating corruption. In Bangladesh and Pakistan, the implementation of E-government attempts to enhance behavioral intention by encouraging transparency and accountability in the fight against corruption. The modified version of the TAM model from previous research is proposed in this study. A total of 680 responses were examined using frequency, reliability, correlation, and multiple regression analysis, and Sobel test was employed for mediation analysis. The study finds substantial evidence for the positive role of E-government in terms of corruption reduction, with transparency and accountability also being impacted positively as mediators between E-government and the behavioral intention of users, and behavioral intention mediating the relationship between E-government and corruption reduction. Furthermore, the findings demonstrate that E-government services, transparency, and accountability are significant predictors of corruption reduction. Finally, the paper illuminates E-government’s success in reducing corruption, which can pave the way for future research, and policy implications to government for corruption eradication are recommended.

1. Introduction

Electronic government (henceforth, E-government) is among the most fascinating topics to emerge in the public administration discipline in recent times [1,2,3], and has emerged as a substantial feature of governance [4,5]. It is focused on delivering residents public information and electronic goods or other technological mediums [6]. E-government solutions could be classified into two categories: information-based and operational. Information-based services include the transmission of government operations via websites, whereas transaction-oriented services combine multiple transactions between both the government and the people, which may necessitate the vertical and horizontal integration of various public entities [7,8]. There are several benefits to reshaping conventional government services into E-government solutions, which include cost-effective provisions, integration capabilities, reduced costs for administration, and rapid acclimatization to satisfying residents’ needs [9]. Government agencies, in contrast, encounter obstacles in implementing transaction-oriented E-government solutions [10,11], as evidenced by the high failure rate of their deployment globally [8].

E-government has evolved as a process of attaining smarter governance. It is becoming abundantly evident that effective public investment in Information and Communications Technology (ICT) might tremendously contribute to the accomplishment of effective governance targets [12,13,14]. E-government adoption is recommended to eradicate corruption. Quite optimistically, several presently emerging economies are recognizing the necessity of E-government to provide customer-focused, premium, and convenient sustainable services to citizens, enterprises, and civil servants. Nonetheless, proper execution of E-government programs necessitates sufficient ICT Infrastructure facilities and dedication. E-government is defined as the application of IT-based technologies to strengthen the capabilities of government systems including businesses, personnel, the public, and other governmental organizations [15,16]. The foremost significant benefits of E-government development are the emergence of the IT system and improved delivery of public services, to strengthen government transparency and accountability [17,18,19,20]. A well-established E-government strategy can contribute to improved, highly accountable, transparent, efficient, and less corrupted governance. The biggest administrative hurdle to innovation is corruption [21]. Therefore, E-government is largely considered a significant manifestation of anti-corruption efforts [22,23,24,25].

Consequently, achieving E-government development involves more than just official assistance; it also varies depending on citizens’ willingness to adapt and acknowledge these E-government operations [17]. Bangladesh is ranked 119th and Pakistan is classified as 124th in the world in the corruption index published by Transparency International [26]. Various prior studies have been conducted in advanced economies, such as the United States [27] and the United Kingdom [28], to examine the impact of E-government on transparency, accountability, and corruption reduction. On the contrary, developing countries have been ignored due to less implementation of E-government initiatives, and relatively limited research is conducted on E-government implementation in emerging economies such as Pakistan [29,30] and Bangladesh [31].

Sustainable e-governance has the potential to significantly reduce corruption by increasing transparency and accountability within government systems. One way this can be achieved is through the implementation of digital systems for financial management and procurement processes, which can reduce opportunities for misappropriation of funds and increase the traceability of transactions [32]. Additionally, e-governance can also facilitate the dissemination of information to the public, allowing for greater citizen engagement and oversight of government actions [33]. Furthermore, e-governance can also reduce bureaucratic inefficiencies and increase the speed of service delivery, which can decrease opportunities for bribery and corruption [32]. Overall, sustainable e-governance has the potential to play a significant role in the fight against corruption by increasing transparency, accountability, and citizen engagement within government systems.

The primary objective of this study is to investigate the following research questions: (1) Do E-government initiatives directly affect combat corruption positively? (2) Do E-government initiatives directly affect the behavioral intention of citizens to use E-government services? (3) Do E-government initiatives have a positive impact on transparency and accountability? (4) Do these components mediate the relationship between E-government and corruption reduction? The findings of the study provided a framework for democracy, as E-government plays an important role in reforming society by combating corruption and growing the economy.

The remainder of the study is structured as follows: Section 2 of this study explains the literature background and how hypotheses are developed. Research methodology is described in Section 3. Section 4 illustrates the research findings of the study, and discussion, implications, and conclusions are explicated in Section 5.

2. Literature Review and Hypotheses Development

2.1. E-Government, Behavioral Intention, and Corruption

Scholars from several social science disciplines have investigated corruption and the role of E-government in mitigating corruption [34,35]. Sociologists argue that corruption possesses cultural and societal origins, and that corruption impedes community welfare and social improvement. Corrupt organizations, low-paid government employees, and a lack of rational and developed market forces, as per social analysts, are all precursors to corruption [36]. According to legal experts, the particular legal structure and its implementation have an influence on corruption [37]. While this study takes a political theory framework to corruption research, this must not be interpreted as a dismissal of the importance of other methods. We begin with the conceptual perspectives used in previous studies on E-government and its effect on corruption by connecting theories pertinent to corruption research, and attempt to comprehend how E-government supplements in the anti-corruption fight from those filters [38,39]. In addition, we consider how e-government might contribute more to combat corruption.

E-government is generally characterized as the use of Information and Communication Technologies by the government in conjunction with institutional transformation to enhance administration structures and procedures [40]. E-government deployment is also believed to assist municipalities in functioning effectively and reshaping relationships with residents, corporate entities, and other federal sectors [41]. E-government is considered to optimize web-based applications to promote adaptable communication between state entities with citizens and various general sector organizations by redesigning conventional government services to strengthen service delivery and security [42]. With the persistent concerns of the United Nations (UN), E-government implementation has become common throughout the world, occurring in 193 countries [43]. Furthermore, as an extraneous objective, E-government tremendously promotes public engagement [44] since it encourages citizens to interact with the government [45].

Empirical studies on E-government adoption [46,47,48] have increasingly concentrated on conventional theoretical frameworks of information systems/information technology such as the theory of planned behaviour and the technology acceptance model, or compositions among these, to determine the variables implicated in the slow adoption of E-government mechanisms or user hesitancy to adopt them. Several theories proposed in previous studies on E-government adoption utilized traditional information system aspects and could therefore be criticized for failing to consider E-government-specific situations [49]. Consequently, an E-government-specific conceptual framework was developed to overcome the specific problems pertaining to E-government adoption, while maintaining an impartial research methodology in the E-government perspective, with information system/information technology models and theories preserved [46]. Adoption of E-government fluctuates per country, depending on citizens’ behavioral intentions to incorporate the new technologies into their government structure [28]. The emergence of E-government has produced several obstacles, including a lack of confidence, a dearth of evaluation of E-government services, various security concerns, and a lack of modern innovation [50,51,52]. Developing economies, particularly in South Asia, are still grappling with the issues in E-government innovation, provided below in

Table 1. EGDI Score and E-government Rank of South Asian Countries.

Country	EGDI	E-government Rank
Pakistan	0.4183	153
Bangladesh	0.5189	119
India	0.5964	100
Nepal	0.4699	132
Bhutan	0.5777	103
Afghanistan	0.3203	169
Maldives	0.574	105
Sri Lanka	0.6708	85

Source: 2020 United Nations E-government Survey.

.

Therefore, the adoption of E-government services from the perspective of inhabitants should always be given special consideration, and an assessment should be conducted to eliminate corruption issues in developing economies such as Pakistan and Bangladesh [53]. Finally, E-government is expected to strengthen citizens’ engagement with the government and, as a result, counteract the reduction in citizens’ confidence in the government [54]. Hence, we propose our hypotheses as the following:

Hypothesis 1: 

E-government initiatives have a positive impact on corruption reduction.

Hypothesis 2: 

E-government initiatives have a positive impact on citizens’ behavioral intentions.

2.2. E-Government, Transparency, and Behavioral Intention

Transparency is considered a phenomenon that provides valuable knowledge with appropriate information in line with citizens’ expectations [55,56]. Currently, transparency advances as public interactions with government increase and conflicts decline [57]. Transparency in government can be defined as the understanding, assessments, and significance of public service in executing continuous improvements to generate results [58]. Transparency, engagement, and public engagement were three fundamental components of a strong E-government system [59]. Kwak and Lee presented perfect open government phenomena with five essential steps: starting circumstances, data transparency, civic engagement, collaboration with government entities, and, most importantly, global engagement [60].

The application of ICT with social media integration capabilities can improve transparency in the government sector, according to a survey among several EU domains [61]. Through the E-government survey, IT professionals conducted numerous ICT-based analyses and concluded that E-government is not a fiction, but a necessity for citizens to satisfy their demands in a more transparent, accessible, and accountable manner [59]. Transparency is simply a notion in a government body that obtains momentum through a variety of public sector programs. Such initiatives may incorporate long-term gradual implementation and accomplish E-government objectives through the ICT department [62]. Furthermore, government and non-government entities must make such information publicly available to be acknowledged in information authentication, which is the essence of transparency [63]. Thus, we propose the following hypotheses:

Hypothesis 3: 

E-government initiatives have a positive impact on the transparency of the government.

Hypothesis 4: 

The transparency of the government is positively related to the behavioral intentions.

Hypothesis 5: 

The transparency of the government mediates between E-government initiatives and citizens’ behavioral intentions.

2.3. E-Government, Accountability, and Behavioral Intention

Accountability is considered one of the most important factors in determining people’s engagement with any institution [64]. The UN’s advanced nations primarily compensate underdeveloped countries for their deficits through financial assistance. Therefore, delegates from developing nations are made accountable amongst themselves with that approach [65]. Moreover, open data must be used to monitor the conduct of government entities to reduce extremism and corruption in order to strengthen the accountability conceptual framework [66]. Hence, in recent times, bureaucrats have designed the continual shift of technological innovation with sensible interfering concerns for transparency and accountability [65]. Numerous previous scholars suggested several conceptual frameworks for determining accountability [67]; however, the universally acknowledged definition of accountability in public administration is explained by managing different prospects undertaken by public agencies and their employees to satisfy the needs of citizens [68]. As a result, government accountability is more considerate than discrete ones.

Various studies have focused on the mechanisms of accountability, which are considered as governments or institutional bodies that hold representatives accountable for their participation in policy formulation [69,70], which may occur in a variety of situations. Most of them are concerned with the relationship between citizens and elected or appointed authorities [71], or corporate sector lessees [72]. To summarize, E-government has consistently been regarded as an effective channel for strengthening the accountability of public services and establishing citizens’ rights [73]. Consequently, it made the government more sensitive to the advantages and drawbacks of individual citizen engagement. Hence, hypotheses are developed as follows:

Hypothesis 6: 

E-government initiatives have a positive impact on the accountability of the government.

Hypothesis 7: 

The accountability of the government is positively related to the behavioral intentions.

Hypothesis 8: 

The accountability of the government mediates between E-government initiatives and citizens’ behavioral intentions.

2.4. Mediating Role of Behavioral Intention

Corruption is a widespread issue that is concealed in different departments. Bribery is the most widespread type of corruption in developing countries, when it comes to government incentives and other favors such as corporate licenses and approvals [74]. The sort of corruption is determined by the amount of money changing hands and the sector where it originates [75]. The three fundamental forms of corruption are petty corruption, grand corruption, and political corruption [26]. E-government is a technological marvel for combating corruption [54]. There is dedicated literature on E-government institutions that emphasize corruption. Digital delivery of services (for instance, tax returns for computer processing and submitting web applications) might reduce moral deterioration and corruption [76]. Furthermore, accountability, transparency, eliminating the middlemen, and connectivity can contribute to bridging the gap between governments and citizens [77].

Some research has been documented on the relationship between E-government and governmental corruption, while others employed correlation analysis and data acquisition to exemplify that a country’s propensity to use E-government and its corruption levels are strongly connected [78]. The evidence suggests the existence of a positive association between E-government and corruption eradication [79]. In general, every institution must be governed in such a way that its constitution can eliminate corruption [80] and corrupt government officials can be wiped out from the origin simultaneously, as a consequence of redesigning the corporate structure to alleviate cancer known as corruption [81].

Hypothesis 9: 

Behavioral intention of the citizens is positively related to the corruption reduction.

Hypothesis 10: 

Behavioral intention of the citizens mediates between E-government initiatives and corruption reduction.

3. Research Methodology

3.1. Sampling and Data Collection

The sample data for this study was collected using an online questionnaires survey employing a 5-point Likert scale. Following data collection, we calculated the mean of a set of five questions answered in each element to further examine our formulated hypotheses. The online survey questionnaires were disseminated online in different social media platforms to comprehend the perception of the general public regarding the impact of E-government on corruption eradication through the behavioral intentions of inhabitants of the country between the period of April and May 2022. Government officials’ data were collected through emails sent to 1588 official emails obtained from the government’s official websites of Pakistan and Bangladesh. Direct emails were sent to 639 government officials from Bangladesh and 949 officials from Pakistan, and 308 responses were collected after a polite reminder email was sent after two weeks. The response rate reached 19%, which is considered adequate in previous research [82]. Furthermore, this study employed cross-sectional research design to validate our research hypotheses, and such practices have been utilized in previous research [83,84]. With such a research design, there are higher probabilities of common method biases, which were addressed through Harman’s one-factor test. The results of the test showed that there is no issue of common method biases.

A greater proportion of transparency indicates a high degree of accessibility, openness, and integrity in governance, since it is the government’s responsibility to exchange information with the public and fundamental to how citizens keep their government accountable. Accountability is defined identically when a government official makes the decisions on behalf of the public and the public has the potential to commend or penalize the official, which has a favorable connection with behavioral intention. Corruption is considered the misuse of government authority, position, or wealth for personal benefit by appointed public officials, such as extortion, solicitation, or bribery. It could take the form of officials keeping their positions by legislative enactment that uses taxpayers’ money and buys votes. According to this survey, a high degree of corruption reduction indicates that there is less perceived corruption in the country. With regards to gender, 415 (61.0%) respondents were males, and 265 (39.0%) respondents were females. The age of the respondents ranged from 18 to 65 years, and education level was measured from high school to doctoral degree for both males and females. The data were collected from Bangladesh (378 (55.6%)) and Pakistan (302 (44.4%)), with income levels ranging from $1,000 to more than $60,000. Out of 680 respondents, 308 were government officials and 372 were inhabitants.

Table 2. Demographic data of respondents.

Variable	Category	Bangladesh	Pakistan	N	% Age
Gender	Male	231	184	415	61.0
	Female	162	103	265	39.0
	Total			680	100
Age	Under 18 years	3	2	5	1.7
	18–25 years	105	91	196	28.8
	26–35 years	211	168	379	55.7
	36–45 years	9	5	14	2.0
	46–55 years	45	32	77	11.3
	Above 55 years	5	4	9	1.2
	Total			680	100
Education	High school	38	18	56	8.2
	Undergraduate	245	194	439	64.5
	Master	89	80	169	24.8
	Doctoral	6	10	16	2.3
	Total			680	100
Location	Bangladesh			378	55.6
	Pakistan			302	44.4
	Total			680	100
Internet Using Experience	Using Internet			680	100
	Total			680	100

displays the individuals’ demographics by country.

3.2. Variables Measurement

In this study, we estimated our variables utilizing online survey forms. One questionnaire survey was delivered to government officials who work directly with the public, while the other forms were completed by members of the public who volunteered. Public officials were requested to complete the questionnaire forms while taking accountability, transparency, and behavioral intention into consideration. We also included a section for demographic information such as gender, age, education, income level, and government experience. The population was expected to answer our questionnaire survey with information about their degree of cooperation with their governments. Furthermore, it must be ensured that the government has been allowed to execute its digital governance policies to comprehend the perceived success in combating corruption. Appendix A (

Table A1. Measurement Items Employed for Data Collection.

Variable	Statement	Source
E-Government (E-governance in practice through digital portals)	I understand a citizen’s right to require digital communication I Know public services or procedures that are mandatory to use online The government priority to increase the number of mandatory online services that are aimed at citizens, government priority to increase the number of mandatory online services that aimed business I know the main national citizen portals for government services	[85]
Transparency (TR) (It is the intention to permit citizens to monitor Govt. policy processes)	The procedure of the E-government decision making is transparently related on the website of Electronic Government The citizens could transparently understand the progress and situations of the decision-making within the websites of Electronic Government The rules are released on the websites of Electronic Government Do you not disagree that government must declare annual the consumption of overtaxes in a municipal paper as a manner of transparencies? Leadership programs are affected more transparent in the websites of Electronic Government	[86]
Accountability (AC) (It ensures actions and decisions taken by public officers are subject to oversight)	The Electronic Services have delivered responses and feedbacks to our requests in a truthful way I originate the Electronic Service processes designate appropriately approachable to my requests Is Electronic Government being significant in establishing nations because It offers support to growth services effectiveness? Electronic Government is significant in developed states because: It presents a benefit to spread accountabilities and awareness Problems are fixed quickly	[70]
Behavioral Intention (BI) (It refers to the motivational factors influencing the behavior)	I intend to use the websites of Electronic Government in the context of receiving services I intend to use Electronic Government Services to collaborate on their activities I intend not to give personal information on Electronic Government I plan to continue using the Electronic Government Services If everything goes smooth, I want to use Electronic Government Services in everyday life	[87]
Reduction in Corruption (RC) (It interlinks E-government and corruption reduction)	Do you consider using Electronic Government services online can decrease under table Payments Do you believe that rising “Government Officers” income can decrease fraud similar to several European nations, previously achieved it? The expenditure of Electronic Government limited employees’ involvement in managing dealings and helped in the immediate achievement of those transactions Electronic Government is important in developing Bangladesh to reduce corruption quickly Electronic Government Facilities assists to classify responsibilities and growths the usefulness of the monitoring processes	[88]

) comprises a complete version of the survey questionnaire used in this study.

E-government: To measure the construct of E-Government, we calculated the mean of two constructs, accountability and transparency, by adapting the TAM model [85]. Furthermore, five elements were added to calculate E-government using a 5-point Likert scale ranging from 1 “strongly disagree” to 5 “strongly agree”, and those five elements were adapted as follows [84]: (“a citizen’s right to require digital communication; public services or procedures that are mandatory to use online; government priority to increase the number of mandatory online services that are aimed at citizens; government priority to increase the number of mandatory online services that are aimed at businesses; and the main national citizen portal for government services”).

Transparency: We evaluated the construct transparency using a customized version of previous research [86]. Respondents were asked to rate their opinions using the survey’s transparency elements based on their attributes. The responses of participants were assessed using a 5-point Likert scale ranging from 1 “strongly disagree” to 5 “strongly agree.” Five elements (such as the procedure of the E-government decision-making is transparently related in the web-site of E-government; citizens could transparently understand the signs of progress and situations of the decision-making within the websites of E-government; the rules are published in the websites of E-government; do you agree that the government must declare annually the consumed overtaxes in a municipal paper as a manner of transparency; and leadership programs are transparent in the websites of E-government) in the survey questionnaire were utilized to determine transparency.

Accountability: The construct accountability was evaluated by employing an adapted edition of prior research by [70]. Respondents were requested to rate their opinions using the survey’s elements based on their perception of government accountability in their country. The responses of respondents were analyzed using a 5-point Likert scale ranging from 1 “strongly disagree” to 5 “strongly agree.” Five elements (electronic services have delivered responses and feedback to our requests in a truthful way; I acknowledge that the electronic service processes were designated appropriately approachable to my requests; E-government is significant in establishing nations because it offers support to the effectiveness of growth services; E-government is significant in developed states because it presents benefits to spreading accountabilities and awareness; problems are fixed quickly) in the survey questionnaire were applied to establish accountability.

Behavioral Intention: To assess behavioral intention, we adapted elements used from previous research by [87]. We requested that participants give their opinions on behavioral intention, and the responses were analyzed using a 5-point Likert scale ranging from 1 “strongly disagree” to 5 “strongly agree.” Five elements (I intend to use the websites of E-government in the context of receiving services; I intend to use E-government services to collaborate on their activities; I intend not to give personal information on E-government; I plan to continue using the E-government services if everything goes smoothly; I want to use E-government services in everyday life) were employed in the survey to define behavioral intention.

Corruption Reduction: To assess the reduction in corruption, we adapted components applied in previous research [88]. The respondents were requested to offer their perceptions of the reduction in corruption, and their responses were investigated using a 5-point Likert scale. Five elements (consideration of using E-government service’s online can decrease under-the-table payments; one’s belief that raising “Government Officers’” incomes can decrease fraud, similar to that of several Europeans nations who previously achieved it; the expenditure of E-government limited employees’ involvement in managing dealings and helped in the immediate achievement of those transactions; the E-government is important in developing economies to reduce corruption quickly; E-government facilities assist in classifying responsibilities and growths, as well as the usefulness of the monitoring processes) were applied in the survey to describe the reduction in corruption.

Control Variables: Several previous academics found a contradictory negative relationship between E-government and corruption [25,76]. Hereafter, gender, age, and experience, which are greatly associated with determining variables, will be employed as control variables [89,90].

3.3. Experimental Design and Methods

The dataset generated for this study was statistically analyzed applying IBM SPSS 23 software, and we tested our hypothesis using multiple linear regression analysis [91]. Recent social science research has shown a considerable emphasis on the bootstrap methodology as one of the finest conventional methods for evaluating contextual elements in social science studies [92]. Furthermore, because of several technological discoveries such as confirmatory analysis, non-linear implications, and moderating and mediating effects, regression analysis utilizing SPSS is considered one of the greatest unique solutions to prior conventional analysis methods [93,94]. Pearson correlations were utilized to investigate convergent validity across all corruption-reduction techniques. Correlation coefficients between E-government and anti-corruption measures were evaluated. Finally, to investigate our hypothesized relationships, we measured all significant correlation coefficients between the independent variables, dependent variables, and mediators.

A convergent validity analysis was first used to develop a measurement model of the authentic self-scales using confirmatory factor analysis (CFA). After that, the modification index is employed to choose items from the factors. The factor with the maximum modification index score was eliminated first, followed by the next factor, and so on until the required goodness-of-fit was acquired. Most of the goodness-of-fit indices were above the stipulated cutoff criteria, although a few loadings were less than the threshold level of 0.5. As a result, we deleted them to collect reliable statistics for our model. The factor loadings of all elements of the dependent variable are proven to be higher than the standard point of 0.5 [95]. Cronbach’s alpha coefficients were applied to evaluate the reliability of the observations, and construct correlation was utilized to evaluate the sample’s validity. The elements for every variable were created using existing works. These indices have the potential to provide stronger proof of construct validity and reliability. Cronbach’s alpha’s level of confidence should be higher than 0.50.

Figure 1 exhibits our proposed research framework, where E-government is considered an independent variable, transparency and accountability as mediators, and behavioral intention and corruption reduction are considered the dependent variables which denote clean government performance. Our research model demonstrates that E-government has a significant positive relationship with behavioral intention; similarly, the behavioral intention has a significant positive relationship with the reduction in corruption. Furthermore, transparency and accountability act as mediating variables between E-government and behavioral intention, and our analysis found a substantial positive mediating impact on outcomes. Likewise, the behavioral intention might be applied as a mediating variable between E-government and reduction in corruption.

4. Results

The acquired data were analyzed using a variety of statistical methodologies. Descriptive statistics, correlation, and multiple linear regression was among the approaches employed. In particular, the “Sobel Test” technique, developed by Michael E. Sobel, was used to evaluate the mediation. This technique was employed by several previous studies, and is a famous method for investigating mediation analysis [96,97]. Following that, several models were performed to measure the goodness of model fit.

Table 3. Cronbach’s alpha of constructs in terms of reliability.

Scale of Measurement	N	Reliability (Cronbach’s Alpha)	KMO and Bartlett’s Test	CR	AVE
E-government	5	0.915	0.869	0.954	0.765
Transparency	5	0.907	0.846	0.931	0.731
Accountability	5	0.855	0.763	0.834	0.567
Behavioral intention	5	0.893	0.862	0.854	0.552
Reduction in corruption	5	0.933	0.874	0.894	0.629

Note: Cronbach’s alpha higher than 0.8 delivers higher reliability of variables.

illustrates the reliability of the questionnaire as measured by Cronbach’s alpha. In terms of sustaining consistency, the lowest value of r = 0.7 is satisfactory. If Cronbach’s alpha is greater than 0.7, the internal texture of the measurement model is established. Therefore, these scores indicate an acceptable level of reliability. Furthermore, values of composite reliability are indicated at levels higher than the threshold level of 0.6, and AVE is greater than the acceptable level of 0.5. The findings are presented in Table 3.

4.1. Correlation Analysis

The findings of descriptive statistics, Pearson correlation, mean, and standard deviation are stated in

Table 4. Descriptive Statistics, Mean, Standard Deviation, and Pearson Correlations.

	N	Mean	S.D.	Gen	Age	Edu	EG	TR	AC	BI	CR
Gen	680	1.299	0.457	1
Age	680	2.760	0.870	−0.134 *	1
Edu	680	2.715	0.753	0.072	−0.584 **	1
EG	680	3.697	0.901	0.154 **	0.203 *	−0.168 *	1
TR	680	3.760	1.060	0.146 **	0.191 *	−0.190 *	0.953 **	1
AC	680	3.633	0.855	0.145 **	0.192 *	−0.12 *	0.927 **	0.769 **	1
BI	680	4.116	0.948	0.091*	0.164 **	−0.165 *	0.762 **	0.702 **	0.735 **	1
CR	680	4.072	1.016	0.101 **	0.181 **	−0.190 *	0.742 **	0.706 **	0.689 **	0.830 **	1

Note: **, * indicates value of p-value equal or less than 0.001, 0.01 and 0.05.

. These findings supported the prospective study’s assumptions, and all components were found to be significantly correlated to the predictor variables. Significant correlations exist between E-governance initiatives and corruption reduction (r = 0.742 **), behavioral intention (r = 0.762 **), transparency (r = 0.953 **), and accountability (r = 0.0.927 **). Positive correlations exist between transparency and behavioral intention (r = 0.702 **), which explicates a 70.2% variation in behavioral intention, accountability, and behavioral intention (r = 0.735 **), explaining 73.5% variation; similarly, behavioral intention is favorably correlated to corruption reduction (r = 0.830 **), amplifying 83.0% variation in corruption reduction.

4.2. Hypotheses Testing

The findings of the multiple linear regression models are shown in

Table 5. Effect of E-government, Transparency, Accountability, and Behavioral Intention on Corruption Reduction, using Multiple Linear Regression Analysis.

	DV = CR	DV = CR	DV = BI	DV = TR	DV = ACC
Independent Variables	Model 1	Model 2	Model 3	Model 4	Model 5
(Constant)	3.771 **	0.368 *	1.431 **	−0.089	0.089
Gender	0.282 **	0.018	−0.053	−0.004	0.004
Age	0.145 **	0.002	−0.033	−0.037 *	0.037
Edu	−0.171 **	−0.057	−0.077	−0.067 **	0.067 **
EG		0.288 **	0.801 **	1.119 **	0.881 **
TR			0.290 **
ACC			0.542 **
BI		0.672 **
Mediation Effects: Sobel Test
EG → TR → BI			4.379 **
EG → AC → BI			11.908 **
EG → BI → CR			7.416 **
N	680	680	680	680	680
R	0.243	0.848	0.768	0.954	0.928
R square	0.059	0.719	0.589	0.910	0.861
Adjusted R Square	0.055	0.717	0.586	0.909	0.860
Standard Error of Estimates	0.988	0.541	0.610	0.320	0.319
F-Model	14.199	344.699	193.513	1699.334	1046.405

**. Correlation is significant at the 0.01 level (2-tailed). *. Correlation is significant at the 0.05 level (2-tailed). Note: CR = Corruption Reduction; EG = E-government; TR = Transparency; ACC = Accountability; BI = Behavioral Intention.

. Each conceptual factor is consistent with a distinct statistical model. The model values are presented in columns, with every row indicating the parameter for the main factor. The following segment examines the quantitative implications of each hypothesis.

4.2.1. Direct Effects

The multiple linear regression of 680 questionnaires from citizens of Bangladesh and Pakistan who are directly or indirectly involved with government services validates the first assumption, that stronger E-government initiatives achieve a higher likelihood of corruption reduction. Table 5 displays the significant influence of the country’s E-government programs (β = 0.288, p < 0.01); in particular, the framework illustrates corruption reduction to a considerable degree. The R² in Model 2 (0.719) for this assumption is statistically significant since it is comparatively high. The correlation analysis also confirms a significant relationship between E-government initiatives and corruption reduction (r = 0.288, p < 0.01), hence H1 is significantly supported.

In hypothesis 2, a positive relationship was proposed correlating E-government initiatives and behavioral intention; in hypothesis 3, E-government and transparency; and in hypothesis 4, a positive relationship was established between transparency and behavioral intention. The statistical results in Model 3 of Table 5 demonstrate that E-government has a significant positive relationship with behavioral intention (β = 0.801, p < 0.01); in Model 4, E-government initiatives are positively associated with transparency (β = 1.119, p < 0.01); and in Model 3, transparency has a significant positive impact on behavioral intention (β = 0.290, p < 0.01), indicating that H2, H3, and H4 are significantly supported as suggested. Furthermore, hypothesis 6 assumed a strong positive relationship between E-governance and accountability (β = 0.881, p < 0.01) in Model 5; hypothesis 7 predicted the impact of accountability on behavioral intention (β = 0.542, p < 0.01) in Model 3; and hypothesis 9 proposed a substantial association between behavioral intention and corruption reduction (β = 0.672, p < 0.01) in Model 2. The outcomes in Table 5 endorsed our predictions and H6, H7, and H9 were supported significantly.

4.2.2. Mediating Effects

Table 5 depicts the outcomes of the Sobel test employed to examine the mediation analysis. The outcomes indicate a direct relationship between E-government initiatives and that of behavioral intention (β = 0.801, p-value < 0.000), as well as a relationship between behavioral intention and corruption reduction (β = 0.672, p-value < 0.000). It revealed a substantial and favorable direct association between E-government programs and behavioral intention, as well as between behavioral intention and corruption reduction. Additionally, as an indirect relationship between E-government initiatives and behavioral intention, the p-value is 0.000, which is significant. Furthermore, the findings showed a substantial and comprehensive direct and indirect relationship between E-government, behavioral intention, and corruption reduction; transparency (β = 4.379, p-value < 0.000) and accountability (β = 11.908, p-value < 0.000) play a significant positive and mediating role between E-government initiatives and behavioral intention; hence, hypothesis 5 and hypothesis 8 are substantially supported. Similarly, as per outcomes (β = 7.416, p-value < 0.000), behavioral intention plays a significant mediating role between E-governance and corruption reduction, strongly supporting our hypothesis 10.

5. Discussions, Implications, and Conclusions

5.1. Discussions

An investigation of the foregoing theories and research vindicated that E-governance is very significant in eradicating corruption. Corruption originates in environments where there is little accountability or transparency in government activities. The presence of superior governance information improves transparency. Plenty of the E-governance initiatives discussed above have boosted accountability by providing information about government and its officials available to citizens around the clock or on request via technologies such as the internet. The Digital Bangladesh is a set of projects, for instance, ensuring complete transparency in the granting of public project agreements by disseminating all necessary information online. Transparency in management and decision-making has significantly reduced corruption. There is less possibility for corruption in a transparent governing structure. Most of the E-governance initiatives generate governance (facilities) on inhabitants’ doorsteps. In traditional versions, citizens had to visit the respective departments and submit applications for services to authorities. This person-to-person interaction provided bureaucrats with the possibility to extort kickbacks and bribes, which most individuals thought they were obligated to pay in order to expedite the process and avoid returning. Businesses and individuals can now access services without having to interact with personnel, thanks to E-government initiatives such as digital Customs. Hence, E-governance initiatives attack the source of corruption by removing possibilities for it to happen.

This study focuses on two widely established theories that are used to investigate the effects of E-government on government reforms in emerging economies, with a special emphasis on transparency, accountability, and corruption reduction. Ten hypotheses were constructed to investigate the direct and indirect mediation relationships between the variables in the study. According to the findings, all the hypotheses proposed in the study were supported. The first two hypotheses established main direct relationships between E-governance and corruption reduction, and E-governance and behavioral intention, with statistical results strongly supporting the hypotheses, demonstrating the relationship’s direct effect as (B = 0.288, p < 0.01) and (B = 0.801, p < 0.01), respectively. Additionally, the outcomes of H3, H4, and H5 established direct and indirect relationships between E-governance, transparency, and behavioral intention, with both direct and mediating correlations supported, such as the effect of E-governance initiatives on transparency (B = 1.119, p < 0.01), the impact of transparency on behavioral intention (B = 0.290, p < 0.01), and the role of transparency in mediating the relationship between E-governance initiatives and behavioral intention (B = 4.379, p < 0.01).

Further, this study investigated the direct and indirect relationships between E-governance, accountability, and behavioral intention, and the findings explored a direct correlation between E-governance and accountability (B = 0.881, p < 0.01) in hypothesis 6, a direct relationship between accountability and behavioral intention (B = 0.542, p < 0.01) in hypothesis 7, and an indirect mediating role of accountability between the relationship between E-governance and behavioral intention (B = 11.908, p < 0.01) in hypothesis 8, providing strong support for H6, H7, and H8. Finally, a direct association was explored between behavioral intention and corruption reduction (B = 0.672, p < 0.01), and an indirect mediating role of behavioral intention between E-governance initiatives and corruption reduction (B = 7.416, p < 0.01), and these direct and indirect relationships were strongly supported. These findings are in accordance with the findings from previous studies using a multi-mediation model [98], such as the impact of E-government on anti-corruption, transparency, and accountability [34,99], the association between transparency, accountability, and behavioral intention [100], and the influence of behavioral intention on corruption [101].

These results are consistent with previous research on the UTAUT model [48,102,103,104]. On the contrary, as a developing economy, implementing various online services is very difficult to manage, and they are unable to rapidly meet citizens’ levels of satisfaction and expectations. Furthermore, we performed a basic random and convenience sampling method; other sampling techniques, such as cluster, quota, systematic, and stratified sampling, could have resulted in different results. All hypotheses are supported, implying that the higher the extent of E-government, transparency, and accountability in web pages, the greater users’ preferences are for using it in the future. Finally, the findings show that behavioral intention influences the right usage of E-government services to prevent corruption in government institutions.

5.2. Implications

This study focuses on determining E-government as an anti-corruption instrument for developing South Asian countries such as Bangladesh and Pakistan. Traditionally, studies focused on E-government adoption in advanced economies employing various technology acceptance models. Limited research has been conducted on E-government, transparency, accountability, and corruption reduction in emerging South Asian economies [31,53]. The outcomes provide insight on the adoption and integration of E-government, which is primarily associated with the government institution’s transparency and accountability, and contribute to behavioral intention and corruption reduction positively. Furthermore, E-government services positively influence users’ mindsets in Bangladesh and Pakistan, encouraging them to adopt and utilize this technology. Accepting and implementing such technologies can greatly reduce corruption. Therefore, a new dimension for developing economies has been explored to accelerate further research in this discipline.

Regarding policy implications, combating corruption is essential to building a sustainable government system that may attempt to recuperate and safeguard under-the-table financing required by government personnel [6,105]. Because government entities benefited from such regulations, the advantages of E-government are the foundation of sustainable revenue generation [106]. The findings of this study may be informative to policymakers in recognizing the significance of an accountable and transparent governance structure, and demonstrate that Digital Bangladesh or Digital Pakistan is not just a phenomenon, but can also be a pragmatic outcome through E-government. With a transparent and accountable E-government framework, we can hope to overcome the problem of corruption through behavioral intention.

5.3. Conclusions

E-government has significant positive effects on corruption eradication through transparency, accountability, and behavioral intention. Citizens of South Asian developing countries Bangladesh and Pakistan were given special consideration in this discourse. Prior studies focused on either E-government with transparency or E-government with accountability separately, and their impact on multiple factors; however, only a few studies demonstrated all three characteristics, namely E-government, transparency, and accountability, in a scientific study, making this study unique in the South Asian context. Furthermore, statistical evidence provides a solid foundation for E-government as a tool for reducing corruption in developing countries such as Bangladesh and Pakistan.

Despite the findings, certain limitations could be considered for future research. Traditional technological adoption models were applied rather than contemporary designs such as MAPS (Model of Acceptance with Peer Support) and the extended TAM2 model. Furthermore, other important elements, such as trust, embedded habit, self-efficacy, social influence, and quality frameworks, were not considered. Finally, this study focuses exclusively on residents of Bangladesh and Pakistan, over those of other South Asian nations such as India, Nepal, Bhutan, Myanmar, Afghanistan, and so on. Consequently, this study can be expanded to include samples from other South Asian or other developing nations to investigate their components relatively efficiently.