In-Field Rainwater Harvesting Tillage in Semi-Arid Ecosystems: I Maize–Bean Intercrop Performance and Productivity
Abstract
:1. Introduction
2. Materials and Methods
2.1. Site Description and Target Group Selection
2.2. Land Preparation
2.3. Crop Management Practices
2.4. Field Data Measurements
2.4.1. Weather Variables
2.4.2. Soil Characteristics
2.5. Crop Growth Parameters and Grain Yield
2.6. Precipitation Use Efficiency (PUE)
2.7. Statistical Analysis
3. Results
3.1. Climate and Weather
3.2. Plant Height and Leaf Number
3.3. Yield and Biomass
3.4. Land Equivalent Ratio (LER)
3.5. Precipitation Use Efficiency (PUE)
3.6. Water Productivity (WP)
4. Discussion
5. Conclusions
Author Contributions
Funding
Data Availability Statement
Acknowledgments
Conflicts of Interest
References
- FAO. The State of the Food Insecurity in the World 2000; FAO: Rome, Italy, 2000. [Google Scholar]
- FAOSTAT; Food and Agricultural Organization of the United Nations (FAO). FAO Statistical Database. 2019. Available online: http://faostat.fao.org (accessed on 20 July 2023).
- Vicente-Serrano, S.M.; Quiring, S.M.; Pena-Gallardo, M.; Yuan, S.; Dominguez-Castro, F. A review of environmental droughts: Increased risk under global warming? Earth-Sci. Rev. 2020, 201, 102953. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Manasa, P.; Sairam, M.; Maitra, S. Influence of Maize-Legume Intercropping System on Growth and Productivity of Crops. Int. J. Bioresour. Sci. IJBS 2021, 8, 21–28. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Sanchez, P.A. En route to plentiful food production in Africa. Nature Plants. 2015, 1, 14014. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
- Dzvene, A.R.; Tesfuhuney, W.; Walker, S.; Fourie, A.; Botha, C.; Ceronio, G. Farmers’ knowledge, attitudes, and perceptions for the adoption of in-field rainwater harvesting (IRWH) technique in Thaba Nchu, South Africa. Afr. J. Sci. Technol. Innov. Dev. 2022, 14, 1458–1475. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Hensley, M.; Botha, J.J.; Anderson, J.J.; van Staden, P.P.; du Toit, A. Optimising Rainfall Use Efficiency for Developing Farmers with Limited Access to Irrigation Water; Water Research Commission Report, 878/1/00; Water Research Commission: Pretoria, South Africa, 2000. [Google Scholar]
- Wezel, A.; Casagrande, M.; Celette, F.; Vian, J.F.; Ferrer, A.; Peigné, J. Agroecological practices for sustainable agriculture. A review. Agron. Sustain. Dev. 2014, 34, 1–20. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Girip, M.; Mărăcine, D.; Dracea, L. Environmental impact of conventional agriculture. Ovidius Univ. Ann. Econ. Sci. Ser. 2020, 20, 372–381. [Google Scholar]
- El-Mehy, A.A.; Shehata, M.A.; Mohamed, A.S.; Saleh, S.A.; Suliman, A.A. Relay intercropping of maize with common dry beans to rationalize nitrogen fertilizer. Front. Sustain. Food Syst. 2023, 7, 1052392. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Botha, J.J.; van Rensburg, L.D.; Anderson, J.J.; Hensley, M.; Macheli, M.S.; Van Staden, P.P.; Kundhlande, G.; Groenewald, D.G.; Baiphethi, M.N. Water Conservation Techniques on Small Plots in Semi-Arid Areas to Enhance Rainfall Use Efficiency, Food Security, and Sustainable Crop Production; Water Research Commission Report 1176/1/03; Water Research Commission: Pretoria, South Africa, 2003; p. 302. [Google Scholar]
- Botha, J.J. Evaluation of Maize and Sunflower Production in Semi-Arid Area Using In-Field Rainwater Harvesting. Ph.D. Thesis, University of the Free State, Bloemfontein, South Africa, 2006. [Google Scholar]
- Van Rensburg, L.D.; Botha, J.J.; Anderson, J.J.; Joseph, L.F. A review on the technical aspects of rainwater harvesting for crop production. In Proceedings of the Combined Congress of the Soil Science Society of South Africa, Potchefstroom, South Africa, 10–13 January 2005. [Google Scholar]
- Van Rensburg, L.D.; Bothma, C.B.; Fraenkel, C.H.; Le Roux, P.A.L.; Hensley, M. In-Field Rainwater Harvesting: Mechanical Tillage Implements and Scope for Upscaling. Irrig. Drain. 2012, 61, 138–147. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Tesfuhuney, W.A.; Walker, S.; Van Rensburg, L.D. Comparison of energy available for evapotranspiration under in-field rainwater harvesting with wide and narrow runoff strips. Irrig. Drain. 2012, 61, 59–69. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Tesfuhuney, W.A.; Walker, S.; Van Rensburg, L.D.; Steyn, A.S. Micrometeorological measurements and vapor pressure deficit relations under in-field rainwater harvesting. Phys. Chem. Earth 2016, 94, 196–206. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Ofori, F.; Stern, W.R. Cereal-legume intercropping systems. Adv. Agron. 1987, 40, 41–90. [Google Scholar]
- Panda, S.K.; Maitra, S.; Panda, P.; Shankar, T.; Pal, A.; Sairam, M.; Praharaj, S. Productivity and competitive ability of rabi maize and legumes intercropping system. Crop Res. 2021, 56, 98–104. [Google Scholar]
- Kermah, M.; Franke, A.C.; Adjei-Nsiah, S.; Ahiabor, B.D.; Abaidoo, R.C.; Giller, K.E. Maize-grain legume intercropping for enhanced resource use efficiency and crop productivity in the Guinea savanna of northern Ghana. Field Crops Res. 2017, 213, 38–50. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
- Sheha, A.M.; El-Mehy, A.A.; Mohamed, A.S.; Saleh, S.A. Different wheat intercropping systems with tomato to alleviate chilling stress, increase yield and profitability. Ann. Agric. Sci. 2022, 67, 136–145. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Wang, Z.G.; Jin, X.; Bao, X.-G.; Li, X.F.; Zhao, J.H.; Sun, J.H. Intercropping Enhances Productivity and Maintains the Most Soil Fertility Properties Relative to Sole Cropping. PLoS ONE 2014, 9, e113984. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Mead, R.; Willey, R.W. The concept of a ‘Land Equivalent Ratio’ and advantages in yields from intercropping. Exp. Agric. 1980, 16, 217–228. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Botha, J.J.; Anderson, J.J.; Groenewald, D.C.; Mdibe, N.; Baiphethi, M.N.; Nhlabatsi, N.N.; Zere, T.B. On-Farm Application of In-Field Rainwater Harvesting Techniques on Small Plots in the Central Region of South Africa; The Water Research Commission Report; Water Research Commission: Pretoria, South Africa, 2007. [Google Scholar]
- Tesfuhuney, W.A.; Walker, S.; van Rensburg, L.D.; Everson, C.S. Water vapor, temperature and wind profiles within maize canopy under in-field rainwater harvesting with wide and narrow runoff strips. Atmosphere 2013, 4, 428–444. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Karel, A.K.; Lakhani, D.A.; Ndunguru, B.S. Intercropping of maize and cowpea effect of plant population on insect pest and seed yield. In Intercropping: Proceedings of the Second Symposium on Intercropping in Semi-Arid Areas, Held at Morogoro, Tanzania, 4–7 August 1980; IDRC: Ottawa, ON, Canada, 1982; pp. 102–109. [Google Scholar]
- Austin, M.N.; Marais, J.N. Methods of presenting intercropping results and preliminary results with Zea mays and Phaseolus vulgaris. South Afr. J. Plant Soil 1987, 4, 1–6. [Google Scholar]
- Du Plessis, J. Maize Production; Department of Agriculture: Pretoria, South Africa, 2003; p. 90. [Google Scholar]
- Tesfuhuney, W.; Walker, S.; Fouri, A. Water Research Commission (WRC) Report No. K/2821/4; Report 2020; Water Research Commission (WRC): Pretoria, South Africa, 2020. [Google Scholar]
- Hensley, M.; LE Roux, P.L.; DU Preez, C.C.; Van Huyssteen, C.W.; Kotze, E.; Van Rensburg, L.D. Soils: The Free State’s Agricultural Base, SA. Geogr. J. 2006, 88, 11–21. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Muchow, R.; Carberry, P. Environmental control of phenology and leaf growth in a tropically adapted maize. Field Crop. Res. 1989, 20, 221–236. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Bennie, A.T.P.; Hoffman, J.E.; Coetzee, M.J.; Very, H.S. Storage and Utilization of Rainwater in Soils for Stabilizing Crop Production in Semi-Arid Areas; Report 227/1/94; Water Research Commission (WRC): Pretoria, South Africa, 1994; pp. 31–110. [Google Scholar]
- Tsubo, M.; Mukhala, E.; Ogindo, H.O.; Walker, S. Productivity of maize-bean intercropping in a semi-arid region of South Africa. Water South Afr. 2003, 29, 381–388. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- SAS Institute Inc. SAS Enterprise Guide 4.1 (4.1.0.471); SAS Institute Inc.: Cary, NC, USA, 2006. [Google Scholar]
- Shapiro, S.; Wilk, M. An analysis of variance test for normality (complete samples). Biometrika 1965, 52, 591–611. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Conradie, D.C.U. South Africa’s Climatic Zones: Today, Tomorrow. In Proceedings of the International Green Building Conference and Exhibition, Sandton, South Africa, 25–26 July 2012. [Google Scholar]
- Kruger, A.C. Climate Regions–Climate of South Africa; South African Weather Service: Pretoria, South Africa, 2004; pp. 8–9. [Google Scholar]
- Silwana, T.T.; Lucas, E.O. The effect of planting combinations and weeding on the growth and yield of component crops of maize/bean and maize/pumpkin intercrops. J. Agric. Sci. 2002, 138, 193–200. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Botha, J.J.; Van Rensburg, L.D.; Anderson1, J.J.; Hensley, M.; Baiphethi, M.N. Alleviating Household Food Insecurity Through In-Field Rainwater Harvesting. Irrig. Drain. 2012, 2, 82–94. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Mafongoya, P.; Rusinamhodzi, L.; Siziba, S.; Thierfelder, C.; Mvumi, B.M.; Nhau, B.; Hove, L.; Chivenge, P. Maize productivity and profitability in conservation agriculture systems across agro-ecological regions in Zimbabwe: A review of knowledge and practice. Agric. Ecosyst. Environ. 2016, 220, 211–225. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Chuene, M.M. Response of Maize to Rainwater Harvesting and Conservation Techniques on the Glen/Oakleaf Ecotope. Master’s Thesis, Department of Soil, Crop and Climate Sciences at the University of the Free State, Bloemfontein, South Africa, 2016. [Google Scholar]
- Tsubo, M.; Walker, S. Relationships between photosynthetically active radiation and clearness index at Bloemfontein, South Africa. Theory Appl. Climatol. 2004, 80, 17–25. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Metwally, A.A. Yield and Land Equivalent Ratio of Intercropping Maize with Egyptian Cotton. J. Asian Afr. Stud. 2015, 3, 85–93. [Google Scholar]
- Nkhata, W.; Shimelis, H.; Chirwa, R. Productivity of newly released common beans (Phaseolus vulgaris L.) varieties under sole cropping and intercropping with maize (Zea mays L.). Front. Sustain. Food Syst. 2021, 5, 741177. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Nassary, E.K.; Baijukya, F.; Ndakidemi, P.A. Sustainable intensification of grain legumes optimizes food security on smallholder farms in sub-Saharan Africa—A review. Intl. J. Agric. Biol. 2020, 23, 25–41. [Google Scholar]
- Bitew, Y.; Derebe, B.; Worku, A.; Chakelie, G. Response of maize and common beans to spatial and temporal differentiation in maize-common beans intercropping. PLoS ONE 2021, 16, e0257203. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Passioura, J.B. Increasing crop productivity when water is scarce–from breeding to field management. Agric. Water Manag. 2006, 80, 176–196. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Gregory, P.J. Water-Use-Efficiency of Crops in the Semi-Arid Tropics. In Soil, Crop and Water Management in the Sudano-Sahelian Zone; International Crops Research Institute for the Semi-Arid Tropics, (ICRISAT): Patancheru, India, 1989; pp. 85–98. [Google Scholar]
- Anderson, J.J. Rainfall-Runoff Relationships and Yield Responses of Maize and Dry Beans on the Glen/Bonheim Ecotope Using Conventional Tillage and In-Field Rainwater Harvesting. Ph.D. Thesis, University of the Free State, Bloemfontein, South Africa, 2007. [Google Scholar]
Descriptions | Diagnostic Horizons (Paradys) | Diagnostic Horizons (Morago) | ||||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Orthic A | Pedocutanic | Unspecified | Orthic A | Pedocutanic | Unspecified | |
Depth (m) | 0–30 | 30–60 | 60+ | 0–30 | 30–60 | 60+ |
Texture class | Clay Loam | Clay | Clay | Clay Loam | Clay | Clay |
Structure | Granola | Sud angular blocky | Angular blocky | Granola | Angular blocky | Crump |
Mottling | Absent | Red, yellow | Magnesium nodules | Absent | Yellow, orange | Absent |
Bulk Density (g cm−3) | 1.67 | 1.66 | 1.66 | 1.66 | 1.66 | 1.66 |
Color (Wet) | 7.5YR2/2 | 7.5YR4/4 | 10YR5/4 | 10YR5/4 | 7.5YR4/4 | 10YR5/4 |
Clay % | 34 | 55 | 54 | 29 | 50 | 53 |
pH (KCL) | 7.3 | 7.4 | 7.8 | 7.0 | 7.4 | 7.6 |
P (mg kg−1) | 17.1 | 7.4 | 7.5 | 30.5 | 8.1 | 9.1 |
Ca (mg kg−1) | 2720 | 3090 | 3100 | 1990 | 3100 | 3720 |
Mg (mg kg−1) | 796 | 1586 | 1664 | 710 | 1436 | 1630 |
K (NH4Oac) | 280 | 333 | 346 | 416 | 433 | 414 |
Zn (mg/kg) | 1.7 | 0.7 | 0.9 | 4.4 | 1.1 | 0.7 |
OC % | 0.49 | 0.50 | 0.52 | 0.47 | 0.52 | 0.54 |
NH4 (mg/kg) | 20.6 | 11.2 | 10.1 | 9.9 | 10.3 | 5.1 |
Plant Height (cm) | Morago Village (DAE) | Paradys Village (DAE) | ||||||||||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
28 | 38 | 50 | 63 | 70 | 85 | 28 | 38 | 50 | 63 | 70 | 85 | |
(a) Maize | ||||||||||||
IRWH-Sole-M | 18.7 a* | 70.3 a | 107.5 a | 162.5 a | 182.0 a | 195.0 a | 70.0 a | 100.0 a | 140.0 a | 177.5 a | 190.0 a | 193.0 a |
CON-Sole-M | 18.4 a | 28.2 b | 32.3 b | 66.5 b | 95.0 a | 142.5 b | 29.6 b | 34.0 c | 70.0 c | 100.0 bc | 150.0 a | 170.0 a |
IRWH-Ic-M | 25.7 a | 34.0 b | 97.5 a | 120.0 ab | 165.0 a | 200.0 a | 63.0 a | 74.0 b | 130.0 a b | 184.5 a | 190.0 a | 197.5 a |
CON-Ic-M | 19.0 a | 38.0 b | 57.0 b | 95.0 b | 123.5 a | 157.7 ab | 40.0 b | 60.0 b | 100.0 bc | 130.0 b | 166.0 a | 168.5 a |
LSD | 6.1 | 25.3 | 27.1 | 63.5 | 79.5 | 54.1 | 11.3 | 13.9 | 39.0 | 45.2 | 45.7 | 53.0 |
(b) Beans | ||||||||||||
IRWH-Sole-B | 19.0 a | 22.0 a | 30.0 a | 53.0 a | 57.5 a | 68.0 a | 20.0 a | 13.0 c | 33.5 a | 60.5 ab | 65.5 a | 67.5 ab |
CON-Sole-B | 11.1 a | 20.3 a | 16.8 a | 30.9 a | 47.5 a | 59.4 a | 29.3 a | 25.7 ab | 39.5 a | 72.5 a | 75.5 a | 89.0 a |
IRWH-Ic-B | 5.0 b | 17.0 a | 33.5 a | 35.0 a | 44.5 a | 57.5 a | 21.3 a | 17.7 bc | 32.5 a | 52.5 ab | 62.5 a | 66.5 ab |
CON-Ic-B | 18.1 a | 18.9 a | 24.4 a | 35.6 a | 35.4 a | 47.5 a | 22.0 a | 29.0 a | 35.0 a | 30.0 b | 45.0 a | 56.5 b |
LSD | 6.8 | 8.6 | 19.1 | 31.6 | 25.2 | 33.4 | 11.5 | 10.3 | 13.6 | 34.9 | 51.9 | 37.7 |
Leaf Number | Morago Village (DAE) | Paradys Village (DAE) | ||||||||||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
28 | 38 | 50 | 63 | 70 | 85 | 28 | 38 | 50 | 63 | 70 | 85 | |
(a) Maize | ||||||||||||
IRWH-Sole-M | 5 b* | 6 a | 9 a | 11 a | 13 a | 12 a | 6 a | 7 a | 8 a | 11 a | 13 a | 12 a |
CON-Sole-M | 6 a | 5 a | 7 a | 9 a | 10 a | 12 a | 7 a | 8 a | 9 a | 11 a | 13 a | 13 a |
IRWH-Ic-M | 4 b | 6 a | 8 a | 10 a | 12 a | 12 a | 8 a | 9 a | 10 a | 11 a | 12 a | 13 a |
CON-Ic-M | 6 ab | 6 a | 7 a | 10 a | 11 a | 12 a | 7 a | 7 a | 10 a | 12 a | 13 a | 12 a |
LSD | 1.4 | 2 | 6.3 | 6.3 | 6.3 | 5.8 | 3.6 | 1.7 | 5.2 | 3.9 | 3.0 | 4.3 |
(b) Beans | ||||||||||||
IRWH-Sole-B | 15 a | 18 a | 30. a | 32 a | 33 a | 35 a | 20 a | 34 a | 42 a | 43 a | 45 a | 48 a |
CON-Sole-B | 10 a | 16 a | 23 ab | 25 ab | 32 a | 35 a | 18 a | 23 b | 35 a | 39 a | 42 a | 43 a |
IRWH-Ic-B | 15 a | 20 a | 30 a | 31 a | 32 a | 33 a | 19 a | 25 b | 35 a | 40 a | 49 a | 50 a |
CON-Ic-B | 11 a | 15 a | 21 b | 23 b | 29 a | 32 a | 7 b | 7c | 11 b | 12 b | 13 b | 13 b |
LSD | 9.8 | 8.0 | 7.7 | 7.2 | 9.9 | 9.7 | 11.0 | 3.6 | 9 | 23.7 | 29.7 | 30.3 |
(a) Maize | ||||||
Treatment | Morago village (kg ha−1) | Paradys village (kg ha−1) | ||||
AGDM | Yg | HI | AGDM | Yg | HI | |
IRWH-Sole-B | 3944.8 b* | 1159.9 a | 0.28 a | 4210.2 a | 1099.9 a | 0.27 a |
IRWH-Ic-B | 4695.5 a | 1096.4 a | 0.21 a | 4234.9 a | 997.6 a | 0.24 a |
CON-Sole-B | 2976.0 c | 829.5 b | 0.25 a | 3271.2 b | 750.8 b | 0.24 a |
CON-Ic-B | 2590.8c | 818.2 b | 0.29 a | 3331.2 b | 696.3 b | 0.22 a |
LSD | 518.3 | 250.9 | 0.094 | 127.5 | 103.2 | 0.068 |
(b) Bean | ||||||
IRWH-Sole-B | 3138.1 a | 878.2 a | 0.26 a | 3016.1 a | 761.4 a | 0.22 a |
IRWH-Ic-B | 2442.8 a | 779.4 ab | 0.31 a | 2846.1 a | 717.7 ab | 0.23 a |
CON-Sole-B | 1685.8 b | 687.6 b | 0.38 a | 1660.4 b | 573.2 c | 0.31 a |
CON-Ic-B | 1689.6 b | 618.0 b | 0.33 a | 1870.6 b | 577.8 bc | 0.27 a |
LSD | 747.7 | 158.1 | 0.128 | 525.2 | 142.9 | 0.119 |
LER | Study Sites (Villages) | |||||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Morago | Paradys | |||||
Maize | Beans | Total | Maize | Beans | Total | |
Grain yield IRWH | 0.94 | 0.89 | 1.83 | 0.90 | 0.93 | 1.84 |
Grain yield CON | 1.00 | 0.87 | 1.87 | 1.00 | 0.92 | 1.92 |
Growth Stage (GS) | GS-I | GS-II | GS-III | GS-IV | Total | ||||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
DAE (mm) | 1–28 | 29–38 | 39–50 | 51–63 | 64–70 | 71–85 | 85–121 | Pg | Pf |
P (mm) | 14.2 | 46.2 | 71.2 | 19.8 | 46.6 | 101.4 | 11.2 | 310.6 | 115.9 |
R-off (mm) * | −3.8 | −12.4 | −19.1 | −5.3 | −12.5 | −27.2 | −3 | −83.2 | - |
R-on (mm) * | +3.8 | +12.4 | +19.1 | +5.3 | +12.5 | +27.2 | +3 | +83.2 | - |
Pfg (mm) ** | 426.5 |
Indicators | Treatments for Each Parameter | Sites (Villages) | |||
---|---|---|---|---|---|
Morago | Paradys | ||||
AGDM | Yg | AGDM | Yg | ||
PUE (kg ha−1 mm−1) | IRWH-Sole-M | 9.25 b* | 2.72 a | 9.87 a | 2.58 a |
IRWH-Ic-M | 11.01 a | 2.57 a | 9.93 a | 2.34 a | |
CON-Sole-M | 6.98 c | 1.94 b | 7.67 b | 1.76 b | |
CON-Ic-M | 6.07 c | 1.92 b | 7.81 b | 1.63 b | |
LSD | 1.58 | 0.53 | 2.01 | 0.48 | |
IRWH-Sole-B | 7.36 a | 2.83 a | 7.07 a | 1.79 a | |
IRWH-Ic-B | 5.73 a | 2.51 a | 6.67 a | 1.68 a | |
CON-Sole-B | 3.95 b | 1.61 b | 3.89 b | 1.34 a | |
CON-Ic-B | 3.96 b | 1.45 b | 4.39 b | 1.35 a | |
LSD | 1.69 | 0.86 | 1.83 | 0.85 |
Disclaimer/Publisher’s Note: The statements, opinions and data contained in all publications are solely those of the individual author(s) and contributor(s) and not of MDPI and/or the editor(s). MDPI and/or the editor(s) disclaim responsibility for any injury to people or property resulting from any ideas, methods, instructions or products referred to in the content. |
© 2023 by the authors. Licensee MDPI, Basel, Switzerland. This article is an open access article distributed under the terms and conditions of the Creative Commons Attribution (CC BY) license (https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/).
Share and Cite
Tesfuhuney, W.; Ravuluma, M.; Dzvene, A.R.; Bello, Z.; Andries, F.; Walker, S.; Cammarano, D. In-Field Rainwater Harvesting Tillage in Semi-Arid Ecosystems: I Maize–Bean Intercrop Performance and Productivity. Plants 2023, 12, 3027. https://doi.org/10.3390/plants12173027
Tesfuhuney W, Ravuluma M, Dzvene AR, Bello Z, Andries F, Walker S, Cammarano D. In-Field Rainwater Harvesting Tillage in Semi-Arid Ecosystems: I Maize–Bean Intercrop Performance and Productivity. Plants. 2023; 12(17):3027. https://doi.org/10.3390/plants12173027
Chicago/Turabian StyleTesfuhuney, Weldemichael, Muthianzhele Ravuluma, Admire Rukudzo Dzvene, Zaid Bello, Fourie Andries, Sue Walker, and Davide Cammarano. 2023. "In-Field Rainwater Harvesting Tillage in Semi-Arid Ecosystems: I Maize–Bean Intercrop Performance and Productivity" Plants 12, no. 17: 3027. https://doi.org/10.3390/plants12173027