Chemical Nature of Metals and Metal-Based Materials in Inactivation of Viruses
Abstract
:1. Introduction
2. Antiviral Performances of Different Metallic Materials
2.1. Metal Nanoparticles
2.1.1. Copper Nanoparticles
2.1.2. Silver Nanoparticles
2.1.3. Nickel Nanoparticles
2.1.4. Gold Nanoparticles
2.1.5. Iron Nanoparticles
2.2. Metal Ions
2.2.1. Copper Ions
2.2.2. Silver Ions
2.2.3. Zinc Ions
2.2.4. Others
2.3. Pure Metals and Alloys
2.3.1. Copper and Copper Alloys
2.3.2. Iron and Iron Alloys
2.4. Metal Compounds
2.4.1. Copper Compounds
2.4.2. Iron Compounds
2.4.3. Titanium Compounds
3. Antiviral Mechanisms at Biological Level
- I.
- Blockade of virus spread and infection
- (1)
- Porous metallic materials or metallic materials with positive charges on the surface can effectively remove viruses through physical adsorption. The virus is only transferred between different phases, and it remains active under certain conditions and can also be released from the surface of the material.
- (2)
- Metal nanoparticles or metal ions can bind to the membrane of the host cell, or attach to the surface of the viral envelope or capsid. Both types of binding inhibit fusion between the virus and the host cell membrane, thereby hindering the spread and infection of the virus.
- (3)
- When the metallic material enters the host cell, the expression of its viral defense-related genes is activated so that the cell develops resistance to the virus, which can also inhibit the spread and infection of the virus.
- II.
- Direct inactivation of the virus
- (1)
- Metallic materials can directly destroy the envelope of the virus after contact with the virus or bind to the glycoprotein on the surface of the virus envelope, resulting in virus inactivation.
- (2)
- Metallic materials can directly damage the genetic material (DNA or RNA) of the virus and prevent the virus from replicating.
- (3)
- Metallic materials can cleave disulfide and thiol bonds of proteins (e.g., hemagglutinin, neuraminidase and RNA polymerase) in the virus, thereby preventing virus replication and inhibiting virus spread and infection. Hemagglutinin is a necessary protein for the virus to enter host cells through endocytosis, and neuraminidase is an essential protein for the virus to be released from the surface of host cells.
- (4)
- Metallic materials can react with oxidants and reductants in the environment to generate reactive oxygen species (e.g., hydroxyl radicals and superoxide anions), which can effectively damage the proteins and genetic material of viruses.
- (5)
- Metallic materials with photocatalytic activity can induce the generation of reactive oxygen species and other oxidants, and then these oxidants promote the peroxidation of phospholipids, resulting in severe destruction of viral functions.
- (6)
- Metallic materials without photocatalytic activity can also act as catalysts for virus inactivation and accelerate the rate of virus inactivation.
4. Potential Antiviral Mechanisms at Physicochemical Level
4.1. Chelation Reaction Equilibrium Constant
4.2. Hydrate Ion Radius
4.3. Ionic Potential
4.4. Standard Electrode Potential
4.5. Others
5. Challenges and Future Perspectives
6. Conclusions
Supplementary Materials
Author Contributions
Funding
Data Availability Statement
Conflicts of Interest
References
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Metallic Material | Size | Viruses | Mechanism | Reference |
---|---|---|---|---|
CuI NPs | D50 = 160 nm | H1N1 virus | Cu+ dissolved from NPs induced ROS production to destroy viral proteins (e.g., hemagglutinin and neuraminidase). | [20] |
CuxOy-Al2O3 | 30~50 nm | Bacteriophage MS2 | Electrostatic adsorption, positively charged NPs bound negatively charged viruses. | [60] |
Ag NPs | 21 ± 18 nm | HIV-1 virus | The combination of Ag NPs and HIV-1 glycoprotein gp120. | [21] |
Ag NPs | 2~15 nm | SARS-CoV-2 | Ag NPs damaged the surface proteins to affect the structural integrity of virions. | [64] |
Ag NPs | 5 nm | SARS-CoV-2 | [65] | |
Ag30-SiO2 NPs | ≈30 nm | Murine norovirus, Bacteriophage MS2 | Ag+ dissolved from NPs bound to the thiol group of viral proteins. *,a | [50] |
Ag NPs | 27 ± 4 nm | HcoV-229E | [66] | |
NiO NPs | 15~20 nm | Cucumber mosaic virus | NiO NPs activated the expression of defense-related genes in cells to resist CMV. | [22] |
Photocatalytic NiO NPs induced the production of ROS to destroy the virus structure. * | ||||
Ni/Fe NPs | 92.6 ± 3.5 nm | Bacteriophage f2 | Ni as a catalyst for inactivation. | [71] |
Viruses were damaged by ROS which was generated during Fe oxidation. | ||||
Au NPs | 19~110 nm | Vesicular stomatitis virus | Au NPs attached to VSV and prevented VSV binding to host cells. | [23] |
Au NPs | ≈18.27 nm | Herpes simplex virus | Au NPs attached to the surface of HSV to eliminate the infectivity of the virus. | [73] |
Au NPs entered the host cells and interfered with viral replication. | ||||
Au NPs | 11 nm | Measles virus | High affinity between Au NPs and disulfide bonds prevented viral infection of host cells. | [76] |
Au NPs | ≈150 nm | Influenza virus | The disulfide bonds were cleaved by Au NPs to block membrane fusion. | [77] |
NZVI | ≈200 nm | Bacteriophage MS2 | O2•− played the major role in phase I and ·OH played the major role in phase II. | [81] |
NZVI | <100 nm | Bacteriophage f2 | [82] | |
NZVI | ≈50 nm | Bacteriophage f2 | NZVI were oxidized to Fe3O4 or Fe2O3 which adsorbed viruses in the initial stage. | [24] |
Fe2+ dissolved from NZVI generated ROS to inactivate viruses in the late stage. |
Metal Ion | Source | Viruses | Mechanism | Reference |
---|---|---|---|---|
Cu2+ | CuCl2, CuSO4 | H9N2 virus | Cu2+ destroyed the structure of viruses. | [85] |
Cu2+ | CuZeo | H5N1 virus, H5N3 virus | Cu2+ destroyed the structure of viruses. | [53] |
Ag+ | AgNO3, Ag2O | Influenza A virus, bacteriophage Qβ | Ag+ broke disulfide and thiol bonds of viral proteins. | [88] |
Ag+ | Silver electrode | Sacbrood virus | [90] | |
Zn2+ | ZnCl2, ZnSO4 | Transmissible gastroenteritis virus | Zn2+ destroyed the RNA polymerase of viruses to shorten their life cycle. a,* | [95] |
Zn2+ | Nitroporphyrin-zinc complexes | HIV-1 virus, SIVmac virus | [52] | |
Ag+, Cu2+, Zn2+ | Hybrid coating | HIV-1 virus, H1N1 virus, Human herpesvirus, Dengue virus | Ag+ and Cu2+ ruptured the viral envelope or were bound to the thiol group of the viral proteins. | [97] |
Metallic Material | Viruses | Mechanism | Reference |
---|---|---|---|
Copper | Adenovirus, Norovirus | [47] | |
Copper | Influenza A Virus | Copper directly damaged the RNA of viruses to prevent viral replication. a,* | [51] |
Copper, copper-nickel alloys, brass | Human coronavirus 229E | Cu2+ and Cu+ dissolved from copper alloy directly inactivated viruses. | [103] |
O2•− generated on the surface of the alloy enhanced the inactivation effect. | |||
Zero-valent iron | Aichi virus, Adenovirus 41, Bacteriophage ΦX174 and MS2 | [105] |
Metallic Material | Viruses | Mechanism | Reference |
---|---|---|---|
Cu2O | Influenza A virus, Bacteriophage Qβ | Cu2O damaged the function of viral hemagglutinin and neuraminidase. | [88] |
Cu2O, Cu2S, CuI | Bacteriophage Qβ | Cuprous compounds adsorbed viral proteins. | [111] |
Fe2O3 | Bacteriophage MS2 and ΦX174 | Fe2O3 adsorbed viruses. | [114] |
Light induced Fe2O3 to inactivate viruses. | |||
Fe2O3 | Bacteriophage P22 | Fe2O3 combined with viruses through electrostatic adsorption. | [115] |
Fe2O3 | Bacteriophage MS2 | Fe2O3 directly bound to viruses through electrostatic interaction. | [116] |
Dissolved iron generated ROS which destroyed viral capsid or envelope. | |||
Cu-TiO2 | Bacteriophage f2 | Light induced Cu-TiO2 to generate ROS. | [49] |
HA/TiO2 | H1N1 virus | TiO2 was activated by UV lamps to produce ROS which destroyed the viral envelope, nucleic acids and proteins. | [121] |
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Tian, H.; He, B.; Yin, Y.; Liu, L.; Shi, J.; Hu, L.; Jiang, G. Chemical Nature of Metals and Metal-Based Materials in Inactivation of Viruses. Nanomaterials 2022, 12, 2345. https://doi.org/10.3390/nano12142345
Tian H, He B, Yin Y, Liu L, Shi J, Hu L, Jiang G. Chemical Nature of Metals and Metal-Based Materials in Inactivation of Viruses. Nanomaterials. 2022; 12(14):2345. https://doi.org/10.3390/nano12142345
Chicago/Turabian StyleTian, Haozhong, Bin He, Yongguang Yin, Lihong Liu, Jianbo Shi, Ligang Hu, and Guibin Jiang. 2022. "Chemical Nature of Metals and Metal-Based Materials in Inactivation of Viruses" Nanomaterials 12, no. 14: 2345. https://doi.org/10.3390/nano12142345