Holm Oak (Quercus ilex subsp. ballota (Desf.) Samp.) Bark Aqueous Ammonia Extract for the Control of Invasive Forest Pathogens
Abstract
:1. Introduction
2. Results
2.1. Phytochemicals Identified by GC–MS
2.2. In Vitro Antimicrobial Activity
2.3. Protection of Excised Stems against P. cinnamomi
3. Discussion
3.1. On the Phytochemical Composition
3.2. Antimicrobial Activity Comparison
3.3. Comparison of Efficacy vs. Other Natural Compounds
3.4. Comparison with a Conventional Fungicide
3.5. Mode of Action
4. Material and Methods
4.1. Reagents
4.2. Phytopathogen Isolates
4.3. Plant Material
4.4. Preparation of the Extract
4.5. Characterization of the Extract
4.6. In Vitro Antimicrobial Activity Assessment
4.7. Protection Tests on Artificially Inoculated Excised Stems
4.8. Statistical Analysis
5. Conclusions
Supplementary Materials
Author Contributions
Funding
Institutional Review Board Statement
Informed Consent Statement
Data Availability Statement
Acknowledgments
Conflicts of Interest
References
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Peak | RT (min) | Area (%) | Assignment |
---|---|---|---|
1 | 4.3897 | 4.3045 | oxime-, methoxy-phenyl-_ |
2 | 4.6983 | 4.5463 | 1-pentanol |
3 | 4.7695 | 2.7271 | 2-cyclopent-2-en-1-one, 2-hydroxy- |
4 | 5.7607 | 2.2880 | succindialdehyde |
5 | 5.8379 | 3.3537 | 2-hydroxy-γ-butyrolactone |
6 | 7.2861 | 1.2101 | 2-methoxy-phenol |
7 | 7.3573 | 1.4969 | pentanal |
8 | 8.9064 | 4.4657 | catechol |
9 | 9.0489 | 2.3118 | 1H-tetrazole, 5-(trifluoromethyl)- |
10 | 9.8620 | 1.1263 | pyridine, 4-nitro-, 1-oxide |
11 | 10.3843 | 0.5025 | 1H-imidazole-4-methanol, 5-methyl- |
12 | 11.0491 | 1.2235 | 2,6-dimethoxy-phenol |
13 | 11.6664 | 1.1952 | 3-octyne |
14 | 12.2183 | 11.4443 | 1-butanol, 4-butoxy- |
15 | 12.5804 | 1.0696 | 2-trifluoroacetoxytridecane |
16 | 14.2245 | 1.7480 | 3,4,5-trimethoxy-phenol |
17 | 14.8833 | 6.9425 | allo-inositol |
18 | 14.9961 | 3.8720 | inositol, 1-deoxy- |
19 | 15.0258 | 0.9823 | inositol, 1-deoxy- |
20 | 15.0910 | 3.6660 | d-lyxose |
21 | 15.1563 | 2.8651 | l-lyxose |
22 | 15.2691 | 6.2190 | d-gulopyranose |
23 | 15.3225 | 3.3908 | d-gulopyranose |
24 | 15.3463 | 7.6969 | myo-inositol |
25 | 17.9103 | 1.2863 | n-nexadecanoic acid |
26 | 25.0920 | 12.9624 | supraene (or trans-squalene) |
27 | 26.6352 | 0.9232 | benzo[H]quinoline, 2,4-dimethyl- |
28 | 28.8194 | 1.3713 | benzo[H]quinoline, 2,4-dimethyl- |
29 | 29.5494 | 2.8086 | benzo[H]quinoline, 2,4-dimethyl- |
Product | Effective Concentration | F. circinatum | C. parasitica | P. cinnamomi |
---|---|---|---|---|
Q. ilex subsp. ballota bark extract | EC50 | 92.1 | 142.3 | 63.4 |
EC90 | 322.4 | 294.9 | 75.2 | |
myo-inositol | EC50 | 375.9 | 171.8 | 174.9 |
EC90 | 710.2 | 472.6 | 321.5 | |
trans-squalene | EC50 | 106.4 | 59.0 | 38.2 |
EC90 | 173.6 | 135.2 | 87.8 |
Pathogen | Source | Natural Product | Inhibitory Value | Ref. |
---|---|---|---|---|
F. circinatum | Aqueous ammonia bark extract (1:1) | Quercus ilex subsp. ballota | MIC = 375 µg·mL−1 | This work |
Commercial EOs | Artemisa arborescens EO | n.a. | [34] | |
Anthemis nobilis EO | n.a. | |||
Coriandrum sativum EO | MIC > 28 µg·mL−1 air | |||
Cyperus scariosus EO | MIC > 28 µg·mL−1 air | |||
Commiphora myrrha EO | MIC > 28 µg·mL−1 air | |||
Pastinaca sativa EO | MIC > 28 µg·mL−1 air | |||
Pogostemon patchouli EO | MIC > 28 µg·mL−1 air | |||
Miroxylon balsamum EO | MIC > 28 µg·mL−1 air | |||
Salvia stenophylla EO | n.a. | |||
Santalum album EO | n.a. | |||
Santolina chamaecyparissus EO | n.a. | |||
Nardostachys sinensis EO | n.a. | |||
Liquidambar orientalis EO | MIC > 28 µg·mL−1 air | |||
Valeriana wallichii EO | MIC > 28 µg·mL−1 air | |||
Lippia javanica EO | n.a | |||
Leptospermum scoparium EO | MIC > 28 µg·mL−1 air | |||
Juniperus mexicana EO | n.a | |||
Daucus carota EO | MIC > 28 µg·mL−1 air | |||
Calitis intratropica EO | MIC > 28 µg·mL−1 air | |||
Commercial EOs | Eucalyptus citriodora EO | MIC > 28 µg·mL−1 air | [35] | |
Melaleuca quinquenervia EO | MIC > 28 µg·mL−1 air | |||
L. petersonii EO | MIC > 28 µg·mL−1 air | |||
Foliage, wood, and bark | Cryptomeria japonica EO | n.a. | [41] | |
Commercial EOs | Syzygium aromaticum EO | MIC = 400–500 µL·L−1 | [33] | |
Cymbopogon citratus EO | MIC = 400–700 µL·L−1 | |||
Thymus vulgaris EO | MIC = 500 µL·L−1 | |||
Pelargonium graveolens EO | MIC = 900–1000 µL·L−1 | |||
n.e. | Cinnamomum verum EO | MIC = 10% v/v | [32] | |
Foeniculum vulgare EO | MIC = 50% v/v | |||
S. aromaticum EO | MIC = 15% v/v | |||
C. parasitica | Aqueous ammonia bark extract (1:1) | Q. ilex subsp. ballota | MIC = 375 µg·mL−1 | This work |
Commercial EOs | A. arborescens EO | MIC > 28 µg·mL−1 air | [34] | |
A. nobilis EO | n.a | |||
C. sativum EO | n.a | |||
C. scariosus EO | MIC > 28 µg·mL−1 air | |||
C. myrrha EO | n.a | |||
P. sativa EO | MIC > 28 µg·mL−1 air | |||
P. patchouli EO | MIC > 28 µg·mL−1 air | |||
M. balsamum EO | MIC > 28 µg·mL−1 air | |||
S. stenophylla EO | MIC > 28 µg·mL−1 air | |||
S. album EO | MIC > 28 µg·mL−1 air | |||
S. chamaecyparissus EO | MIC > 28 µg·mL−1 air | |||
N. sinensis EO | MIC > 28 µg·mL−1 air | |||
L. orientalis EO | MIC > 28 µg·mL−1 air | |||
V. wallichii EO | MIC > 28 µg·mL−1 air | |||
L. javanica EO | MIC > 28 µg·mL−1 air | |||
L. scoparium EO | n.a | |||
J. mexicana EO | n.a | |||
D. carota EO | n.a | |||
C. intratropica EO | n.a | |||
Commercial EOs | E. citriodora EO | MIC > 28 µg·mL−1 air | [35] | |
M. quinquenervia EO | MIC > 28 µg·mL−1 air | |||
L. petersonii EO | MIC > 28 µg·mL−1 air | |||
Foliage, wood, and bark | C. japonica EO | n.a. | [41] | |
n.e. | Illicum verum EO | MIC > 0.32 µg·mL−1 air | [36] | |
J. oxycedrus EO | MIC = 0.08–0.16 µg·mL−1 air | |||
E. globulus EO | MIC = 0.08–0-16 µg·mL−1 air | |||
Lavandula angustifolia EO | MIC > 0.32 µg·mL−1 air | |||
Citrus limon EO | MIC > 0.32 µg·mL−1 air | |||
C. flexuosus EO | MIC > 0.32 µg·mL−1 air | |||
Mentha piperita EO | MIC = 0.02 µg·mL−1 air | |||
Origanum vulgare EO | MIC = 0.16–0.32 µg·mL−1 air | |||
Pinus nigra EO | MIC = 0.02 µg·mL−1 air | |||
P. pinaster EO | MIC = 0.16–0.32 µg·mL−1 air | |||
P. silvestris EO | MIC = 0.32 µg·mL−1 air | |||
Rosmarinus officinalis EO | MIC ≥ 0.32 µg·mL−1 air | |||
S. officinalis EO | MIC = 0.04 µg·mL−1 air | |||
Abies alba EO | MIC = 0.02 µg·mL−1 air | |||
Gaultheria procumbens EO | MIC > 0.32 µg·mL−1 air | |||
Commercial EOs | Pimenta racemosa EO | MIC > 28 µg·mL−1 air | [37] | |
J. oxycedrus EO | MIC > 28 µg·mL−1 air | |||
C. nardus EO | MIC > 28 µg·mL−1 air | |||
P. graveolens EO | MIC > 28 µg·mL−1 air | |||
Cuminum cyminum EO | MIC > 28 µg·mL−1 air | |||
Myristica fragrans EO | MIC > 28 µg·mL−1 air | |||
C. martini EO | MIC > 28 µg·mL−1 air | |||
M. pulegium EO | MIC > 28 µg·mL−1 air | |||
M. spicata EO | MIC > 28 µg·mL−1 air | |||
T. vulgaris EO | MIC = 14 µg·mL−1 air | |||
P. cinnamomi | Aqueous ammonia bark extract (1:1) | Q. ilex subsp. ballota | MIC = 78.12 µg·mL−1 | This work |
Water, ethanol (70%), lanolin (10%), or cocoa butter (10%) | L. tridentata PE | MIC90 = 11.2−7213 µg·mL−1 | [38] | |
F. cernua PE | MIC90 = 23.6−619 µg·mL−1 | |||
A. lechuguilla PE | MIC90 = 58.5−327 µg·mL−1 | |||
Opuntia ficus-indica PE | MIC90 = 3595−409, 181 µg·mL−1 | |||
L. graveolens PE | MIC90 = 4825−n.a. µg·mL−1 | |||
Carya illinoensis PE | n.a. | |||
Yucca filifera PE | n.a. | |||
n.e. | S. officinalis EO | MIC > 1600 µg·mL−1 | [39] | |
S. rosmarinus EO | MIC > 1600 µg·mL−1 | |||
O. vulgare EO | MIC > 200 µg·mL−1 | |||
Laurus nobilis EO | MIC > 1600 µg·mL−1 | |||
C. sativum EO | MIC = 800 µg·mL−1 | |||
T. vulgaris EO | MIC = 200 µg·mL−1 | |||
M. piperita EO | MIC = 800 µg·mL−1 | |||
L. intermedia EO | MIC = 1600 µg·mL−1 | |||
Aerial parts | Beilschmiedia miersii EO | MIC = 300 µg·mL−1 | [40] | |
Leaf methanol extract (1:5) | Arbutus unedo PE | MIC = 5990 µg·mL−1 | [42] |
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Sánchez-Hernández, E.; Balduque-Gil, J.; Barriuso-Vargas, J.J.; Casanova-Gascón, J.; González-García, V.; Cuchí-Oterino, J.A.; Lorenzo-Vidal, B.; Martín-Gil, J.; Martín-Ramos, P. Holm Oak (Quercus ilex subsp. ballota (Desf.) Samp.) Bark Aqueous Ammonia Extract for the Control of Invasive Forest Pathogens. Int. J. Mol. Sci. 2022, 23, 11882. https://doi.org/10.3390/ijms231911882
Sánchez-Hernández E, Balduque-Gil J, Barriuso-Vargas JJ, Casanova-Gascón J, González-García V, Cuchí-Oterino JA, Lorenzo-Vidal B, Martín-Gil J, Martín-Ramos P. Holm Oak (Quercus ilex subsp. ballota (Desf.) Samp.) Bark Aqueous Ammonia Extract for the Control of Invasive Forest Pathogens. International Journal of Molecular Sciences. 2022; 23(19):11882. https://doi.org/10.3390/ijms231911882
Chicago/Turabian StyleSánchez-Hernández, Eva, Joaquín Balduque-Gil, Juan J. Barriuso-Vargas, José Casanova-Gascón, Vicente González-García, José Antonio Cuchí-Oterino, Belén Lorenzo-Vidal, Jesús Martín-Gil, and Pablo Martín-Ramos. 2022. "Holm Oak (Quercus ilex subsp. ballota (Desf.) Samp.) Bark Aqueous Ammonia Extract for the Control of Invasive Forest Pathogens" International Journal of Molecular Sciences 23, no. 19: 11882. https://doi.org/10.3390/ijms231911882