Environmental Sustainability Impacts of Solid Waste Management Practices in the Global South
Abstract
:1. Introduction
2. Materials and Methods
3. Results and Discussion
3.1. Solid Waste Management Practices in the Global South
3.2. Environmental and Public Health Impacts of SWM Practices in the Global South
- (a)
- Weak and Inadequate SWM System
- (b)
- Irregular Waste Collection and Handling
- (c)
- Landfilling and Open Dumping
- (d)
- Open Burning and Incineration
- (e)
- Composting
4. Implications and Recommendations
- Uncollected organic waste from bins, containers and open dumps harbors rodents, insects, and reptiles that transmit diseases to humans. It also produces odor due to the decomposition of organic wastes, especially in the summer, and leachates that migrate and contaminate receiving underground and surface waters.
- Open dumps and non-engineered landfills release methane from decomposing biodegradable waste under anaerobiotic conditions. Methane is a key contributor to global warming, and it can cause fires and explosions.
- Non-biodegradable waste, such as discarded tires, plastics, bottles, and tins, pollutes the ground and collects water, thus creating breeding grounds for mosquitoes and increasing the risk of diseases such as malaria, dengue, and West Nile fever.
- Open burning of MSW emits pollutants into the atmosphere thereby increasing the incidences of nose and throat infections and inflammation, inhalation difficulties, bacterial infections, anemia, reduced immunity, allergies, and asthma.
- Uncontrolled incineration causes smog and releases fine particles, which are a major cause of respiratory disease. It also contributes to urban air pollution and GHG emissions significantly.
- Incineration and landfilling are associated with reproductive defects in women, developmental defects in children, cancer, hepatitis C, psychosocial impacts, poisoning, biomarkers, injuries, and mortality.
5. Conclusions
Author Contributions
Funding
Institutional Review Board Statement
Informed Consent Statement
Data Availability Statement
Conflicts of Interest
Appendix A
Author | Study Area | Study Aim | Impacts on Humans | Impacts on the Environment | Recommendations/Implications |
---|---|---|---|---|---|
Akmal & Jamil [36] | Rawalpindi and Islamabad, Pakistan | Examines the relationship between residents’ health and dumpsite exposure. |
|
|
|
Hong et al. [95] | Pudong, China | Assesses the environmental impacts of five SW treatment options |
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|
Gunamantha [88] | Kartamantul region, Yogyakarta, Indonesia | Compares five energetic valorization alternative scenarios and existing SW treatment. |
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Abba et al. [65] | Johor Bahru, Malaysia | Assesses stakeholder opinion on the existing and future environmental impacts of household solid waste disposal. |
|
|
|
Fang et al. (2012) [85] | Shanghai, China | Identifies different sources of MSW odor compounds generated by landfill sites. |
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|
|
Menikpura et al. [89] | Nonthaburi municipality, Bangkok, Thailand | Explores recycling activities’ effects on the sustainability of SWM practices. |
|
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|
Mongkolnchaiarunya [103] | Yala Manucipality, Thailand | Investigates the possibilities of integrating alternative SW solutions with local practices. |
|
|
|
De & Debnath [98] | Kolkata, India | Investigates the health effects of solid waste disposal practices. |
|
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|
Suthar & Sajwan [83] | Dehradun city, India | Proposes a new solid waste disposal site |
|
|
|
Phillips & Mondal [68] | Varanasi, India | Evaluates the sustainability of solid waste disposal options |
|
|
|
Ramachandra et al. [37] | Bangalore, India | Assesses the composition of waste for its management and treatment |
|
|
|
Pokhrel & Viraraghavan [38] | Kathmandu Valley, Nepal | Evaluates SWM practices in Nepal. |
|
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|
Dangi et al. [93] | Tulsipur, Nepal | Investigates household SWM options. |
|
|
|
Islam (2016) [82] | Dhaka, Bangladesh | Develops an effective SWM and recycling process for Dhaka city |
|
|
|
Das et al. [101] | Kathmandu valley, Nepal | Estimates the amount of MSW burnt in five municipalities. |
|
|
|
Usman et al. [84] | Faisalabad, Pakistan | Investigates the impacts of open dumping on groundwater quality |
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Nisar et al. (2008) [73] | Bahawalpur City, Pakistan | Explores the sources and impacts of SWM practices |
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Ejaz et al. (2010) [52] | Rawalpindi city, Pakistan | Identifies the causes of illegal dumping of SWM. |
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Batool & Chaudhry [35] | Lahore, Pakistan | Evaluates the effect of MSW management practices on GHG emissions. |
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Hoang & Fogarassy [74] | Hanoi, Vietnam | Explores the most sustainable MSW management options using MCDA. |
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Ansari [86] | Bahrain | Proposes an integrated and all-inclusive SWM system |
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Clarke et al. [53] | Qatar | To collect data about residents’ specific opinions concerning SW strategies. |
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Ossama et al. [115] | Saudi Arabia | Reviews municipal SWM practices in Saudi Arabia |
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Brahimi et al. [104] | India | Explores the potential of waste-to-energy in India |
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|
Author | Study Area | Aim | Impacts on Humans | Impacts on the Environment | Recommendations/Implications |
---|---|---|---|---|---|
McAllister [39] | Peru, South America | To conduct a comprehensive review on the impact of inadequate SWM practices on natural and human environments |
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Bezama et al. [66] | Concepción (Chile) province and the city of Estrela (Brazil) | To analyze the suitability of mechanical biological treatment of municipal solid waste in South America. |
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Ansari [120] | Guyana (South America) | To develop effective and low-cost technologies for organic waste recycling |
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Hoornweg & Giannelli [25] | Latin America and the Caribbean | To integrate the private sector to harness incentives in managing MS.W. in Latin America and the Caribbean. |
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Olay-Romero et al. [78] | Sixty-six Mexican municipalities, Mexico | To propose a basic set of indicators to analyze technical aspects of street cleaning, collection, and disposal. |
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Urban & Nakada [64] | Thirty Brazilian cities | Assess environmental impacts caused by shifts in solid waste production and management due to the COVID-19 pandemic. |
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Gavilanes-Terán et al. [75] | Ecuadorian province of Chimborazo, Ecuador. | Categorize organic wastes from the agroindustry and evaluate their potential use as soil amendments. |
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Pérez et al. [102] | City of Valdivia (Chile) | Holistic environmental assessment perspective for municipal SWM. |
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Yousif & Scott [40] | Mazatenango, Guatemala | Examines the problems of SWM concerning administration, collection, handling, and disposal |
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Azevedo et al. [70] | Rocinha, Brazil | To develop a SWM framework from the sustainable supply chain management (SSCM) perspective. |
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Penteado & de Castro [80] | Brazil | Reviews the main SWM recommendations during the pandemic. |
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Pereira & Fernandino [77] | Mata de São João, Brazil | Evaluates waste management quality and tests the applicability of a system of indicators |
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Buenrostro & Bocco [121] | Mexico | Explores the causes and implications of MSW generation patterns |
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Juárez-Hernández [119] | Mexico City, Mexico | Evaluates MSW practices in the megacity. |
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de Morais Lima & Paulo [41] | Quilombola communities, Brazil | Proposes a new approach for SWM using risk analysis and complementary sustainability criteria |
|
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Coelho & Lange [76] | Rio de Janeiro, Brazil. | Investigates sustainable SWM solutions |
|
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Aldana-Espitia et al. [69] | City of Celaya, Guanajuato, Mexico. | Analyzes the existing municipal SWM process |
|
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|
Silva & Morais [81] | Craft brewery, the northeastern Brazilian city | Develops a collaborative approach to SWM. |
|
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Morero et al. [71] | Cities in Argentina | Proposes a mathematical model for optimal selection of municipal SWM alternatives |
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Bräutigam et al. [72] | Metropolitan Region of Santiago de Chile | Identifies the technical options for SWM to improve the sustainability of the system. |
|
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Vazquez et al. [110] | Bahia Blanca, Argentina. | Assesses the type and amount of MSW generated in the city |
|
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Zarate et al. [91] | San Mateo Ixtatán, Guatemala | Implements SWM program to address one of the public health needs |
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Rodic-Wiersma & Bethancourt [107] | Guatemala City, Guatemala | Evaluates the present situation of the SWM system |
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Burneo et al. [113] | Cuenca (Ecuador) | Evaluates the role of waste pickers and the conditions of their activities |
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Author | Study Area | Study Aim | Impacts on Humans | Environment Impacts | Recommendations/Implications |
---|---|---|---|---|---|
Dianati et al. [42] | Kisumu, Kenya | Explores the impact on PM2.5 and GHG emissions of the waste-to-biogas scheme |
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Kabera et al. [143] | Kigali, Rwanda, and Major cities of East Africa | Benchmarks and compares the performance of SWM and recycling systems |
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Kadama [43] | The North West Province of South Africa | Formulates a new approach to SWM based on the business process re-engineering principle. |
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Owojori et al. [45] | Limpopo Province, South Africa | Determines the differences among waste components. |
|
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Ayeleru et al. [116] | Soweto, South Africa | Evaluates the cost-benefit analysis of setting up a recycling facility. |
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| |
Friedrich & Trois [48] | eThekwiniMunicipality, South Africa | Estimates the current and future GHG emissions from garbage. |
|
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Nahmana & Godfreyb [92] | South Africa | Explores the opportunities and constraints to implementing economic instruments for SWM |
|
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Filimonau & Tochukwu [114] | Lagos, Nigeria | Explores SWM practices in selected hotels in Lagos. |
|
|
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Trois & Vaughan-Jones [118] | Africa | Proposes a plan for sustainable SWM |
|
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Parrot & Dia [51] | Yaoundé, Cameroon | Assesses the state of MSW management and suggests possible solutions |
|
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Dlamini et al. [44] | Johannesburg, South Africa | Reviews waste-to-energy technologies and their consequence on sustainable SWM |
|
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Serge Kubanza & Simatele [49] | Johannesburg, South Africa | Evaluates solid waste governance in the city |
|
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Kabera & Nishimwe [13] | Kigali city, Rwanda | Analyzes the current state of MSWM. |
|
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Muheirwe & Kihila [111] | Sub-Saharan Africa | Examines the current SWM regulation by exploring the global and national agendas. |
|
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Almazán-Casali & Sikra [50] | Liberia | Proposes an effective SWM system. |
|
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Imam et al. [46] | Abuja, Nigeria | Develops an integrated and sustainable system for SWM in Abuja. |
|
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Mapira [47] | Masvingo, Zimbabwe | Assesses the current environmental challenges associated with SWM and disposal |
|
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Adeleke et al. [108] | South Africa | Evaluates the trend, shortcomings, progress, and likely improvement areas for each sustainable waste management component |
|
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Muiruri & Karatu [79] | Eastleigh Nairobi County, Kenya | Assesses the household level solid waste disposal methods |
|
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Activity | Low-Income Countries | Middle-Income Countries | High-Income Countries |
---|---|---|---|
Source Reduction | Low per capita waste generation rates, no organized SWM program, high reuse rate. | Some source reduction elements but rarely incorporated into an organized SWM program. | SWM programs emphasize the three “Rs”: reduce, reuse, and recycle. More producer responsibility. |
Collection | Infrequent and inefficient. Serves mainly high visibility areas, the wealthy, and businesses willing to pay. A high fraction of inert and compostable waste impact collection. The overall collection is less than 50%. | Improved collection and transportation in residential areas. Large vehicle fleet and mechanization. The overall collection rate is from 50% to 80%. Transfer stations are gradually incorporated into the SWM system. | More than 90% collection rate. Compactor and well-mechanized trucks, and transfer stations are common. Waste volume is a major consideration. Aging collection workers are often considered in system design. |
Recycling | Informal sector recycling by scavengers is dominant. High recycling rates for local and international markets. Imports of materials for recycling, including hazardous goods such as e-waste and shipbreaking. Recycling markets are unregulated and include several “middlemen”. Large price fluctuations. | Informal recycling, high technology sorting, and processing facilities. Relatively high recycling rates. Materials are often imported for recycling. Recycling markets are mostly regulated. Material prices fluctuate considerably. | Recyclable material collection, high-technology sorting, and processing facilities are common and regulated. Increased attention towards long-term markets. Overall, recycling rates are higher than in middle- and low-income countries. Informal recycling still exists (e.g., collecting aluminum cans). Extended product responsibility is common. |
Composting | It is rarely performed formally, albeit the waste consists of a high percentage of organic material. Markets for, and awareness of, compost are lacking. | It is not widespread. Largescale composting facilities are mostly unsuccessful because of contamination and operating costs (little waste separation); some small-scale composting projects at the community/neighborhood level are more sustainable than the large-scale. Growing use of anaerobic digestion. | It is widespread in backyard and large-scale facilities. The waste consists of smaller portions of organic matter than low- and middle-income countries. More source segregation makes composting easier. Anaerobic digestion is gaining popularity. Odor control is critical. |
Incineration | It is uncommon and mostly unsuccessful due to high capital, technical, and operation costs, the high moisture content in the waste, and the high proportion of inert waste. | A few incinerators operate but experience financial and operational difficulties. Air pollution control equipment is not advanced and is often bypassed. Lack of emissions monitoring. Facilities are often driven by subsidies as construction and operation costs are prohibitive. | Predominant in areas where land is scarce or expensive (e.g., islands). It is mostly subjected to environmental control to regulate and monitor emissions. It recovers energy but it is about at least three-folds the cost of landfilling per ton. |
Landfilling and open dumping | Open dumping of waste and low-technology landfill sites. High pollution to nearby aquifers, water bodies, and communities. Regularly receive medical waste. Waste is often burned. Significant health impacts on workers and residents. | Sanitary landfills with some environmental controls often exist. Open dumping of garbage is widespread. Projects for landfill gas collection under clean development mechanism are commonplace. | Sanitary landfills combined with liners, leak detection, and leachate collection systems. Gas collection and treatment systems. It is often problematic to open new landfills due to concerns of neighboring residents. Post-closure use of sites is increasingly important, e.g., golf courses and parks. |
Costs | Waste collection costs represent 80–90% of the municipal SWM budget. Local governments regulate waste fees, but the fee collection system is inefficient. Only a small proportion of the budget is allocated toward disposal. | Collection costs represent 50% to 80% of the municipal SWM budget. Some local and national governments regulate waste fees and more innovation in fee collection, e.g., included in electricity or water bills. More mechanized collection fleets and disposal expenditures are higher than in low-income countries. | Collection costs can represent less than 10% of the budget. Large budget allocations to intermediate waste treatment facilities. Upfront community participation reduces costs and increases options available to waste planners (e.g., recycling and composting). |
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Abubakar, I.R.; Maniruzzaman, K.M.; Dano, U.L.; AlShihri, F.S.; AlShammari, M.S.; Ahmed, S.M.S.; Al-Gehlani, W.A.G.; Alrawaf, T.I. Environmental Sustainability Impacts of Solid Waste Management Practices in the Global South. Int. J. Environ. Res. Public Health 2022, 19, 12717. https://doi.org/10.3390/ijerph191912717
Abubakar IR, Maniruzzaman KM, Dano UL, AlShihri FS, AlShammari MS, Ahmed SMS, Al-Gehlani WAG, Alrawaf TI. Environmental Sustainability Impacts of Solid Waste Management Practices in the Global South. International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health. 2022; 19(19):12717. https://doi.org/10.3390/ijerph191912717
Chicago/Turabian StyleAbubakar, Ismaila Rimi, Khandoker M. Maniruzzaman, Umar Lawal Dano, Faez S. AlShihri, Maher S. AlShammari, Sayed Mohammed S. Ahmed, Wadee Ahmed Ghanem Al-Gehlani, and Tareq I. Alrawaf. 2022. "Environmental Sustainability Impacts of Solid Waste Management Practices in the Global South" International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health 19, no. 19: 12717. https://doi.org/10.3390/ijerph191912717